Biology

Dear Graduate Committee Members,
Having recently finished my masters degree, I,  state your name , wish to apply for Ph. D.  in state the program you wish to apply to. Primarily, I intent to apply in this program since my interest lie in plant and environmental field, and I believe that this program will further hone my skills and develop my expertise in the said area.

The research of Dr. Colin Birch on Ash products from coal combustion to improve agricultural productivity in an environmentally safe manner, an inevitably interesting and relevant post-graduate topic, has specifically captured my attention. If given a chance, I would like to work with a professor who is widely-knowledgeable in the area to assist me in my academic pursuit. I plan to do a research on Plant Transmutation Employed by Ash Utility.

I was introduced to mathematics, as well as natural and physical sciences, at an early age, and it was in high school that I considered a career in this area. The desire to study the natural sciences prompted me to take degree program in college, also state in here any achievements you had. My previous research in masters degree was regeneration and sub culturing the medical plants in vitro and vivo. This interest is the primary reason I enthusiastically wish to apply for Ph. D. at this university.

I am hoping that the laboratory techniques, computer skills , language proficiency, quantitative and statistical expertise I have gained in the past years, with my sincere devotion to my academic career, albeit the complexity of the program I desire, will help me to become a better doctorate student in my desired field. With all due respect, I would gladly welcome an opportunity to become a part of this university, andor to have an interview with the professor, at his convenience, so I could share and elaborate more on my fields of expertise and knowledge. I am looking forward to hearing from you in the near future. Thank you for your consideration and attention.

DNA fingerprinting is a technique that involves use of DNA to identify individuals. Before it was discovered, it was difficult to solve some of the crimes in which little or no evidence had been left. Disputes such as paternity disputes were almost impossible to solve. But with the discovery of this technique, many cases have been solved and disputes settled through its help. This paper is going to look at the principles behind this technique and benefits it has brought with it.

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a thread of molecules that are part of the cell structure which are commonly found in the nucleus of the cell. It is referred to as genetic fingerprint simply because each and every individual has different DNA except for identical twins who have the same set of DNA patterns. Each individual has a unique DNA profile just like in the case of finger prints. DNA can be extracted from the body tissues by taking samples such as body fluids, hair, saliva, tears and other body fluids or other things that contain DNA. Therefore, DNA finger printing is the process by which a subject is identified through the use of DNA (Christopher, 1991).

It is believed that each person has got a DNA profile that is unique just like finger prints. Over 99 of the 3 billion nucleotides contained in human DNA are said to be identical in all individuals. However, in every 1000 nucleotides inherited, there is a site that varies within the population which is referred to as polymorphism. Polymorphism is the one responsible in changing the length of DNA fragments that result from digestion of restriction enzymes. These fragments which result after digestion are referred to as restriction fragments length polymorphisms (Lorne, 1993). The techniques used in DNA finger printing were first discovered in 1984 by Alec J. Jeffreys, a geneticist of the University of Leicester in Britain while studying a myoglobin gene which is responsible for storage of oxygen in the muscles. He discovered that the gene is comprised of many segments which vary in composition and size from one individual to the other and that they had not particular function. He referred them as minisatelites which were found to form less than 1  of the total DNA in human beings. He went ahead to separate several of this minisatelite genes and inserted them in bacterias producing huge amounts of DNA segments (Terry, 1991).

There have been numerous researches which have been conducted in the human genetic engineering field since the first one which was conducted by Sir Alec Jeffreys.

The first step in undertaking DNA fingerprinting is to collect DNA samples from subjects. DNA sequences have been found to be in a paired helix strand form. These strands are then separated by use of different techniques such as the use of electrophoresis gel. Electrophoresis gel works on the principle of separation of DNA sequences through the use of charges. Once separation of sequences has been achieved, their images are further analyzed by the use of radio enzymes that stick to the isolated DNA strands or through the use of chemiluminescence technique. In cases where the images cannot be clearly seen, the process is repeated severally until a clearer image is obtained.    

Uses of DNA testing
According to Michael, Schmidtke  Jrg (1998), DNA finger printing has widely been used in forensic science for provision of evidence and identification. Through the use of the unique DNA composition of individuals which is found in materials belonging to them, it has been possible to generate DNA profiles for every individual. It is because of this that shocking crimes have been solved not forgetting the role that it has played in providing an insight into the history of human beings (Lorne, 1993).
 
This technique was first used to solve a criminal case in 1987. Since then, DNA evidence has been used in a variety of other court cases because evidence gotten from this technique has been considered as reliable because of the level of accuracy of the DNA results. Although it has been accepted as a source of evidence and a basis for convictions in courts, other individuals are opposed to its use. They query the accuracy of this technique because of the use of segments of DNA in contrast to the whole DNA strand. Despite the opposition, DNA fingerprinting has helped investigators and police to solve a lot of crimes that previously could be difficult to solve. It is through the help of this technology that cold cases with minimal evidence have been solved. This has been made possible because of the DNA data base with blood samples from offenders which have been established allowing investigators to look for DNA matches for materials that have been retrieved from crime scenes. (Christopher, 1991)
DNA finger printing has also helped solve paternity disputes and identify bodies in cases involving fatal accidents in which victims cannot be physically identified or in cases where there is mass fatality. This technique can also be of help in cases involving switching of infants during birth or when an adopted child requires hisher family medical history. Although there are usually challenges in cases involving mass fatalities, scientists have been able to extract and analyze samples regardless of the level of fragmentation and deterioration of remains (Terry, 1991).

DNA profiling has also been used in geological studies. The study of DNA structures together with differences in gene traits has made it possible to re-examine the different aspects of the history of human beings such as migration patterns making it possible to test the modern believes concerning genealogy and race. Its though this studies that scientist have been able to determine genealogical lines of ethnic groups which are considered not to be having any relationship shading light on past interaction and migration among different groups of people (Marina, 2006).

DNA change which have taken place for the last 20 years
Since its discovery, DNA finger printing has had an effect on thousands of peoples lives the world over. It continues to advance as there are numerous powerful technologies that have been discovered and continue to be discovered which have had a great impact on genetic studies. In 1978, this technology was used in studying inherent differences in Human DNA which led to the discovery of RFLP type of variation which results from altering single bases in DNA. It is through that discovery that it was discovered that there are approximately 10,000,000 different areas in which individual DNA can vary in sequence. It was again discovered that some regions in the DNA are more variable than single base regions known as minisatellites (Sergio, 1993).

It led to accidental development of DNA fingerprinting in 1984 by Sir Alec who demonstrated that a single test was capable of distinguishing every individual on earth. Sir Alec has also been able to come up with an approach to solve crossover and mutation problems among families by coming up with alternative ways of solving the problem through screening sperms. He has been able to reveal the way in which minisatellites mutate by use of abnormal recombination which has come to regulate the basic rules on how crossovers happen across human DNA and the effects it has on genetic diversity among the population (Sergio, 1993).      

Protein is a polymer that is made up of amino acids (AA) monomers that are joined together with the aid of peptide bonds. They occur naturally. Proteins are divided into different groupslevels depending on their structural composition. They include primary structure, secondary structure, tertiary and quaternary structure. Their structural composition can be destroyed if they are exposed to different changes in temperature, PH and various chemicals (Barry, p.209).

Different levels of protein structure
Primary structure this is the arrangement of amino acids in reference to different locations of disulphide bonds in the polypeptide chains. The primary structure can be said to be the basis for all other covalent bonds in the polypeptide chain. It is usually denoted by use of a three letter standard abbreviation for (AA) such as gly-gly-ser-ala which is the primary structure for polypeptides containing glycine, serine, and alanine respectively. The N terminal contains glycine while the C-terminal contains alanine (Reginald and Charles, p.79).

Secondary structure this is the arrangement of amino acids in the localized areas of a protein molecule. These folding patterns are stabilized by hydrogen bonds. The main structures in this level are alpha helix structure and anti-parallel beta-pleated sheet. Although there are different periodic conformations, alpha and beta pleated sheets are the most stable. A protein or single polypeptide can be comprised of more than one secondary structure. Alpha-helix is a clockwise spiral with planar peptide bonds and a trans conformation. The amine groups for each of the peptide bond generally run upward at the same time parallel to the helix axis. Carboxyl group generally points in the upward direction. Beta-pleated sheets are made of extensive polypeptide chains. Their neighboring chains extend anti-parallel to one another. Each of their peptide bonds is planar and trans just like the ones for alpha-helix structure. The carboxyl and amine groups of the peptide bonds lie in the same plane pointing at each other making it possible for hydrogen bonds to occur between neighboring polypeptide chains. Hydrogen bonding among carboxyl and amine groups in the same polypeptide stabilizes the helix structure (Kenneth, Enrique and Paul, p.500).

Tertiary structure this is a three dimensional-array of atoms in a polypeptide chain. In polypeptides with single conformational pattern such as alpha helix, tertiary and secondary structures may remain the same. For proteins with one polypeptide molecule, the highest structure level that it can attain is the tertiary structure. This level is mainly kept together by disulphide bonds that form among cysteine side chains through oxidation of 2 thiol groups (Reginald and Charles, p. 97).

Quaternary structure this refers to proteins that contain multiple sub-units. These proteins contain a molecular weight of more than 50,000 with 2 or more non covalently-linked monomers. Arrangements of monomers in a 3 dimensional protein make a quaternary structure. An example of a protein with quaternary structure is hemoglobin protein. The main stabilizer in the quaternary structure is the hydrophobic interaction (Kenneth, Enrique and Paul, p.500).

Protein denaturation
According to Shuryo and Wayne (p.129), this is destruction of the protein structure resulting in loss of biological activity of proteins. It is usually caused by changes in PH, temperature and chemical composition. The primary structure that is mainly held together by covalent bonds is not affected by denaturation. The secondary structure is usually affected with the proteins loosing all their regular repeating patterns and adapting a random coil pattern. In tertiary structure, it involves disruption of interaction of covalent contact among AA side chains, dipole-dipole non-covalent interactions among polar AA side chains and Van der Waals interaction among non-polar AA side chains. In Quaternary denaturation, sub-units of proteins are partially rearranged destroying the three dimensional structure. To maintain the biological activities of proteins, its advisable that optimal conditions are maintained at all times.

Natural selection, according to Gulick, is the process through which heritable attributes that are beneficial or vital for survival and reproduction become a common thing in a population, whereas harmful characteristics become rare (p, 27). Natural selection occurs as a result of successful reproduction by persons who have advantageous traits (Darwin p, 39). This results in adoption of beneficial traits by the subsequent generation. Over a number of generations, adaptations take place through successful combination of small, random alterations in traits, as well as natural selection of the changes best suited for a particular environment. Genetic drift on the other hand results in production of random alterations in the number of characteristics in a population. Genetic drift occurs as a result of the role played by chance in determining whether an individual will live on and reproduce (Starr, Taggart, and Starr p, 415).

The greatest controversies of biology are found in the unity and diversity of life. Naturalists have greatly employed Darwins explanation of unity or organic forms in order to resolve this controversy. Darwin applied the concept of evolution to every living thing including human beings, and claimed that all individuals, who belong to the same species, reveal some sort of variation between them (Goodenough, Wallace, and McGuire p, 9). According to Darwin, individuals who have advantageous features, for both reproduction and survival, pass them down through genetic inheritance from one generation to the other. Darwin teaches that variation, on which natural selection plays a role, is basically of small magnitude and that indefinite variation in all directions as well as the progressive accumulation of a particular series of variations, all resulting in the production of a novel species, occurs as a result of natural selection (Gulick, 28). In his theory of natural selection, Darwin stated that only those organisms that have the advantageous characteristics that suit a particular environmental condition are selected by nature. Natural selection, therefore, turns out to be a vital aspect in the evolution process (Darwin p, 45).

Unity and diversity of life comprises of the dual facets of life on earth. Natural selection gives an account of the relatedness among organisms in a population by revelation that different animal species are related through descent from a common ancestor (Gulick p, 25). Modern animals, including man, are believed to have originated from a common simple ancestor. However, as a result of increased complexity, modern species appear different from the ancestral species. Nevertheless, a remarkable evidence of unity of life is revealed by the similarities in the molecular structure of species. Modern molecular studies reveal biochemical similarities between different species. Comparison of DNA sequences between human beings and apes reveal a close genetic similarity. This reveals that these two species probably had a common ancestor (Starr, Taggart, and Starr p, 410).

Natural selection also gives an account of the great diversity that is displayed by modern species. Organisms that have distinct traits that enable them to live in environmental niches not occupied by similar organisms, according to Starr, Taggart and Starr, possess a greater chance of surviving (p, 410). Over generations, species which originated from a common ancestor have diversified in addition to occupying more and more environmental niches in order to take advantage of unutilized resources. Modern species are a phase in the progression of evolution, and their diversity results in the development of a series of speciation as well as extinction. Diversity of life, according to Gulick, does not result in development of a completely new and unique organism, but rather in organisms that share certain morphological similarities (p, 27). Vestigial characteristics that have no specific role resemble functional ancestral characteristics, and as a result, organisms can be categorized using these similarities into a ladder of connected groups.

The biosphere 2 environment has some parallels with the real world we live in biosphere 1. As a result certain conditions are shared between the two when it comes to sustaining the life of a person in Biosphere 2 and the sustainability of a persons lifestyle in the real world (Schulze, 1996). Life in the world and in the biosphere 2 needs to be supported in the same way since human have some basic needs even in enclosed space (Schulze, 1996). Some of the key needs that might not be directly measurable are like oxygen which is required in both spheres.

In the biosphere 2 the biospherians experienced higher levels of carbon monoxide which had to be regulated as would happen in enclosed space (Schulze, 1996). Oxygen levels were also reduced to unforeseen circumstance like the cement concrete. Provisions have to be made in both spheres for that. In exploring my footprint even though air does not have a price tag, land available for use like forests directly affects the quality of air available (Pound et al, 2003). Food is also quite basic and as such provisions have to be made for the cultivation of foods that will offer sufficient nutrition for people (Pound et al, 2003).

In the biosphere for example the biospherians experienced effects of the new diet. They lost weight due to the changes but in time adapted to it. In the real world life has to be sustained with food enough in quantity and quality for the normal function of people (Chivian  Bernstein, 2008). In both spheres people also need to account for waste disposal (Pound et al, 2003). This is because in the limited space of biosphere 2 care has to be taken so that waste does not negatively affect the environment, for example pollute clean water, or take up too much space (Pound et al, 2003).

Without proper management of waste toxins can enter the environment (Schulze, 1996). Proper management of waste can also enhance the environment. For example, food and plants not fit for consumption by the biospherians could be fit for the animals and some of it could also be used as manure (Schulze, 1996). In my footprints waste requires fossil and forest land to deal with. A reduction in my waste would save or free up fossil and forest for other uses (Pound et al, 2003).
In the project of calculating my footprint size, I noticed that some categories had huge sizes while some had less. Each shows factors contributed most to its size. Although I might have expected housing, heating and food to account for higher contribution it is surprising that transport that is by far the greatest contributor. My transport was at an amount of 2000.

The least contributor was goods. In my footprint, I spend the least on goods at an amount of 6.8. In the goods category the most used resource is pasture for the wool, followed by fossil which is used in the production of almost every item and finally land arable land for the cigarettes and cotton. Using cotton more than wool would reduce my footprint hectares as well as doing away with smoking.
The next contributor is waste at an amount of 7. The most resource used here is fossil followed by forest. Paper and paperboard used up most fossil as well as consumed the most forest. This would indicate that reducing paper used or wasted would reduce fossil use (EPA, 2010). At the same time, by recycling paper I would reduce my forest consumption since trees are used to make new paper (EPA, 2010).

The next category is services at an amount of 80. The most resource used is forest and then fossil. Forest is for the house under house insurance. Fossil is for telephone services. However the most fossil is consumed for entertainment purposes. In order to reduce my footprint size I would need to cut down on the use of telephone service and reduce my entertainments to make the most impact on fossil reduction.

The next category is food at an amount of 142.2. The most used resource in this category was pasture, followed by fossil and arable land. The most use for pasture was for milk and its products followed by production of beef. Most fossil use was for eating out followed by fish production. To reduce my footprint I would need to cut consumption of some milk or beef which contribute the most to a large footprint in this category. Though vegetables, potatoes and fruits have the largest amount in the category they use much less fossil and arable land.

The next category is housing at an amount of 780. In this category the most used resources are fossil and forest. The most amount of fossil was used for thermally produced electricity followed by the running of major appliances. In this category the forest use was for the singular purpose of the brick house. To reduce my footprint in this category, since housing is a basic need I would need to make cuts in my electricity use and reduce my use of major appliances (EPA, 2010).

The last category is transport at an amount of 2191. This category is much more than all the other categories combined. The most used resource in this category is fossil followed by built-up land. This is for the car itself and for its parts. The other resource used, the built-up land, is for the car parking. To make reduction in this category would require removal of the car as my mode of transport since the other consumptions are directly related to the car.

The footprint allows me to look at the whole picture. There are aspects of the footprints that are sustainable while others are not. My footprint exceeds the global average of 1.5 by as much as four times. The greatest contributors are fossil and forests. Both of these resources are being quickly used up (Pound et al, 2003) . Fossil makes 40 of my total amount while forests take up 19. Exhaustion of these two resources poses a unique challenge. Fossil is made in the earth over long duration of time and is exhaustible (Pound et al, 2003). Thus my lifestyle of rapid and huge consumption of it can not be sustained.

Fossil is used in many categories directly and indirectly. The other very notable resource is the forest. While consumption of forests continues to be high, there is evidence that more trees are needed (Pound et al, 2003). Thus the earth needs more trees to be planted as it is. Thus my lifestyle can not be sustained. The other highly consumed resource is arable land. Most of the arable land is used for food production. While this take a big size food is a necessity and production of vegetable food is better sustained than production of animal foods. This is because smaller amounts of animal foods show greater consumption of the resources

For example in my footprint calculation, vegetables, potatoes and fruits have a high amount of 20 but only consume 362 fossil and 218 arable lands. Pork which has an amount of 2.2 consumes 405 fossil and 234 of arable land. Chicken at an amount of 2.5 consumes 362 fossil and 308 arable lands. Beef (grain fed) at only an amount of 1.2 consumes high fossil at 283 and even greater land at 607 arable land and 4,620 pasture. This clearly indicates that animal foods consume more resources. Eating out in the food category consumes a great amount of fossil at 1,013. This can definitely be reduced and made more sustainable.

Transport also indicates an area in my lifestyle that is not sustainable. It consumes too much fossil and yet there are other means of transport that can be interchanged (EPA, 2010). The greatest amounts in the housing category are major appliances and electricity. These two consume the greatest amounts of fossil of any category. These two can be adjusted to consume fewer fossils because if unchecked they deplete the resource at a great speed (EPA, 2010). As there are different categories that make up the foot print, so too are there different ways in which every category can be approached to make changes.

To begin with I would like to make changes in my diet. I could reduce my intake of meat products and replace it with tofu. I could also take more vegetable based foods or salads, and use fruits as snacks (Chivian  Bernstein, 2008). In the housing category, I could reduce the consumption of electricity by using energy saving bulbs for lighting (EPA, 2010). I could also reduce use of major appliances by running the washers and dryers are full load and hand washing fewer dishes (EPA, 2010). In the transport category since I already have a car I could change the way I use it.

I could take the bus whenever I do not have luggage to carry around. I could also plan my errands in such a way that I use the car minimally. I can also car pool with other students or family members so that those who do not have a car already do not buy one until it is absolutely necessary. In goods, I could opt for cotton instead of wool for my clothes using heavy cotton coats instead of wool coats or wool sweaters. I could also quit smoking. In services I could reduce my telephone use (EPA, 2010). In waste I could buy products that use recycled paper and recycle more. I could also use libraries facilities to read newspapers, magazines and books instead of buying my own.

While these options are possible adhering to them might not be so easy. If I were to make these changes my lifestyle would be fundamentally changed in some ways. For example I would have to be more conscious of my choices and to actively engage myself in implementing the changes. In shopping for clothes, for example, I would be required to look at the fabric contents to find out if it is cotton or wool. I would also have to give up the comforts of my car and endure walking and the elements of weather.

Reducing my footprint would also fundamentally change the way I look at the world. Every action that I take which consumes energy would need to be scrutinized. I would be less involved with consuming and exploiting that in conserving and preserving. Given all what is involved, it is possible to reduce my footprint. However everything has to be done in moderation. Drastic changes in my diet for example might lead to the same issue that the biospherians experienced in the first year of enclosure of weigh loss. The greatest challenge would be making it worthwhile so that I do not give up midway my plans. Making a change that saves money for example is a motivator in itself.

As global citizens I feel that Americas footprints should be reduced to be fair to other global citizens. The bigger size of American citizens footprint point to the lifestyle we live which although may be hard to backtrack can be modified to accommodate reductions (Pound et al, 2003). Many of the categories that represent big chunks that go into the footprint do not exist in many other countries in the same amounts as they do in America. For example in developing countries there is less usage of electricity, appliances, cars, heatingcooling systems and gas (Pound et al, 2003).

America as a whole should reduce its footprints. This should be through personal efforts to reduce personal consumptions as well as national policies to curb usage of resources. This can be through taxes, alternative sources of power, better management of waste and better more accessible public transport (Pound et al, 2003). Ignoring the consequences of America footprints on the globe would lead to careless use of resources (Pound et al, 2003). Although it might be tempting to feel indifferent about the question of resources, it is imperative to attend to the question before it is too late (Cohen  Tilman, 1996). Not only would the consequences be felt globally, but they would be also felt keenly at home. Progress made by America could be replicated in other countries for the good of the world.

Creationism and evolutionary theories are broadly perceived as two conflicting views of the universe. Evolutionary theory, also referred to as naturalistic view, symbolizes a variety of beliefs concerning the emergence of the universe from which God and divinity are excluded (Roberts para, 1). Creationism on the other hand symbolizes a universal perception where everything was created by God. If evolutionary theory is believed as true, the perception of creation is ignored and God is gently excluded from existence. On the other hand, if creation theory is perceived as the whole truth concerning the development of the universe, then Charles Darwin and his evolutionary theory are perceived to be fundamentally imperfect. Creation theory not only rejects the evolutionary theory, but also rejects the findings of astronomy and geology, and the age of the earth is held to be something less than ten thousand years (Roberts para, 1). The issue of creationism and evolutionary theories has resulted in a major controversy between the supporters of Charles Darwin and his evolutionary theories, who mainly are scientists and scholars, and Christians who believe that the universe was created through the extraordinary creation act of an all-powerful God. Creationism and evolutionary theories, according to Witham, provide complementary responses to different questions (p, 62).  In order to minimize the existing controversy, it would be better to put these two theories together and allow the insights of evolution theory highlight as well as augment the Christian teaching of creation of the universe. These two theories illuminate four other significant aspects including ascribing ages to the planet as well as its strata, human lifespan, the existence of natural evils, and the problems in paleontology (Roberts p, 3).

Evolution, as described by Charles Darwin simply means that all life came down from a common ancestor (Witham p, 72). It is believed that human beings are descendants of apes. As a result, evolution rejects creation and thus God. Charles Darwin, who is believed to be the father of evolution combines different aspects of biology including variation and selection, which led to natural selection. Other aspects which Darwin combined include geographical distribution, geographical record, in addition to the mutual affinities of organic substances. Darwin however, was unable to find a solution to the problem of genetics and inheritance. Gregory Mendel later provided a solution to this (Roberts para, 4).

Creationism theory, on the other hand, bases its facts on the creation story in the book of Genesis in the Bible. This revelation has it that the universe was created by God in six days. Any attempt to tie this story to scientific theories results in total mess. It is believed that the Bible was written long before the invention of Geology, approximately three thousand years earlier (Witham p, 103). The Bible clearly records that in the beginning, God, the Rock of Ages, created the heavens and the earth in addition to all that is in them. Even though the Bible offers no scientific explanation of creation, it clearly outlines the greatness of God and acknowledges His ability to create. Scientific theories are supposed to inform our comprehension concerning creation and not depose it (Roberts para, 9)

Ages in the bible are recorded in terms of BC and AD. Archbishop Ussher of the 17th century recorded the age of creation as 4004 BC (Roberts para, 10). Early Christians and Jews believed that the earth was only a few thousand years old. Scientists, who rose in the 17th century however rejected this fact and argued that the earth appeared older than what the early Christians believed. Geologists, such as Smith and Hutton in the 18th century argued that the earth was probably millions of years old (Alexander and Numbers p, 36). The perception of geologists was however opposed by some people. Lord Kevin in the 1860s approximated the age of the earth to be over a hundred million years. Modern geologists applied radioactivity to estimate the age of the earth, and currently the age of the earth remains undoubted at 4,600, 000,000 years (Roberts para, 13). However, some Christians have problems with these ages, but the current age remains a fact they cannot deny. In order to minimize this controversy concerning the age of the earth, Christians focus on God as a creator in addition to the things that increase their wonders on Him and not merely on His criterion.

The complexity of nature that is currently observed is time and again attributed to an inherent tendency of matter to organize itself under a wide range of adaptive conditions (Schwabe para, 1). Human beings as well as other living organisms, according to Schwabe, have undergone extensive adaptations in order to thrive in their current habitat (para, 2). All these adaptations have resulted in complexity of nature with a major aim of making life easy and increasing lifespan (Alexander, Denis. and Numbers p 165). The evolutionary picture of life and death is very clear. It indicates that death has been in existence since the beginning of life, over three million years ago. Creationists nevertheless, believe that death was not in existence during the inception of life. They believe that death came as a result of the sinful nature of man. God created man and woman and the two had no sins. Later on, man and woman were deceived by the devil and this brought about the fall of man and the beginning of death. Initially, man lived for many years on earth before meeting his death. As a result of an increase in the sinful nature of man, God mightily reduced the life span of man. Evolutionary theory, on the other hand, has it that aging increases vulnerability and eventually results in death. This theory has it that lifespan is an evolved aspect, that is fundamentally determined by the process of evolution instead of some basic limitations. Various external conditions are attributed to lifespan these include presence of food and water, habitat, environmental conditions and predators (Aging.Org p, 1).

The existence of natural evils, which many believe to be purposely designed by a loving God is a terrible barrier to faith for a very large percentage of people. Atheist philosophers, according to Magee, argue that even though God could be justified in allowing moral evils to take place, He is not justified in creating a world and then allowing natural calamities to destroy the same world (para, 4). Although many argue that it were better that natural calamities be eliminated, these people have not considered the effects of their perceptions on the way the world could be operated if people were in charge of the earths design (Corey p, 76). Christians throughout history have provided justifying reasons for the occurrence of natural calamities. They claim that despite the presence of natural evils, God remains to be an all-good and all-powerful God (Magee p, 7). Creationists argue that God must have a tangible reason for permitting natural evils such as natural and physical calamities to occur, and this makes it unsuitable to lay the blame of these evils on Him. God is omnipotent and everything that is on earth belongs to him. Therefore, no limits should be put on what He should or should not do to His creation. God remains to be all-good even though natural evils are present in his creation (Magee para, 9).

Paleontology, basically the study of fossils, aims at revealing the ecologies of the ancient times, the evolution, the place as well as the emergence of human beings in the world (University of California Museum of Paleontology para, 1). It integrates knowledge from biology, archeology, anthropology, as well as computer science in order to gain an understanding of the processes that have resulted in the origination as well as the destruction of different forms of organisms since the inception of life (University of California Museum of Paleontology para, 1). Paleontology, according to the University of California Museum of Paleontology, has it that life on earth has been continuously evolving from the time it first appeared as a single celled organism approximately 3,000,000 years ago (para, 1).

It also has it that in between the inception of life and now, a variety of processes including natural selection, drift, sexual selection, in addition to mutation, have resulted in creation of novel forms of life. However, paleontology is faced by numerous challenges.  One of the main problems with paleontology is the missing links that are supposed to fill the gaps between varieties of species that have been recognized (Foote, et al p, 164). The other problem is that a great deal of fossils has probably not yet been excavated. Therefore, there is a great possibility that a wide range of ancient fossils have not yet been discovered. Many significant fossils, as a problem on the other hand, are located in remote places throughout the world (Foote, et al p, 165). Paleontology suffers greatly due to the fact that it does not receive sufficient funding and this factor is not likely to come to an end any time soon.

Global warming is defined as the gradual but steady increase on temperatures in the earths atmosphere near the surface. According to scientific evidence, global warming is mainly caused by the increased concentration of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, a factor which leads to trapping of heat reflected from the earths surface within the lower atmosphere and thus increased temperatures in the atmosphere near the earths surface (World Resource Institute). Increased earth surface temperatures due to global warming have negative impacts such as sea water warming, flooding, droughts, and formation of strong winds, all of which have compromise the sustainable survival of the ecosystem.

Numerous scientific research findings have closely associated global warming to the increase in health complications across the globe. This can be evident with the unpredictable weather patterns experienced across the world today. On the other hand, flooding and wind storms, direct results of global warming are blamed for trans-regional spreading of diseases across the globe (World Resource Institute). Just to be appreciated is the fact that it is not uncommon to experience traditionally tropical diseases in other regions of the world. Global warming is the cause of food insecurity across the globe, an element directing impacting on human health quality.

The problem of global warming is attributed to increased emission of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere particularly following increased industrial activities since early twentieth century. Available scientific information indicates that the earth surface temperatures have increased by an estimated 0.74  0.18 C over the 1906 to 2005 (World Resource Institute). Still, the information claims that the rate of increase has been double over the last half of this period. The rate of polar ice caps melting has almost doubled over the past few decades as the effects of ozone layer shrinking are mainly witnessed in the Polar Regions (NASA). Given the modern industrial development trends, temperature of the earth surfaces are expected to increased by between 1.1 C to 6.4 C by the end of the twenty first century.

The global warming debate has remained a controversial one cross the social, political, and academic fronts of the global community. Despite the numerous scientific findings proving the harmful impacts of global warming, politicians seem to negate such terming climatic change as a natural phenomenon (Weart 36). This has however been attributed to their quest to safeguard the economic competitive advantage of their nations relative to others. It is worth noting that engaging much in mitigating greenhouse gas productions into the atmosphere threatens industrial sustainability and prosperity in developed nations, an element that has negative impacts on the social and economic development of their communities.

Despite this, many concerns by the global community on resolving the global warming problem have witnessed a number of mitigation and adaptation policies developed. The international community has been calling for the implementation of the Kyoto agreement by all nations. This agreement dictates for the implementation of safe industrial production practices aimed at decreasing the emission of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. In addition, the global community has engaged in adopting reliable agricultural practices to resolve the food insecurity problem caused by global warming. With evident flooding and submerging of low lying coastal regions, shifting of their residents has been a concern to reduce life and property losses. All in all regardless, of these measures, the problem of global warming seems far from over.