Biology

Summary of the article
The research article entitled, Effects of soil salt levels on the growth and water use efficiency of Atriplex canescens (Chenopodiaceae) varieties in drying soil, authored by Glenn and Brown (1998) described the performance of three plant varieties to varying degrees of salt and water concentrations.  It has long been established that maximal growth and development of any plant species are mainly dependent on optimal environmental conditions.  These include an ample supply of water, as well as nutrients from the soil, sun and sunlight.  Any significant decrease or absence of any of these factors may induce stress to a plant species.  Moreover, the combinatorial effect of at least two external factors may pose more harmful effects on a plant.

The quality of soil that is used for planting may also affect the growth and development of plants It should be understood that the soil serves as a water reservoir to the growing plant.  Water also serves as a matrix for transporting organic, as well as inorganic solutes to the plant.  The main region of entry for these solutes is the root of the plant, which is strategically located adjacent to the soil.  It has been suggested that the any perturbation of two external factors may impose an additive effect on the performance of a plant.  However, there are certain research reports that describe a more complicated mechanism, wherein the soil would mitigate conditions of water stress.  For example, soil that contains some amount of salt may assist in a plants survival when there is not enough water on the ground.  It is possible that plants may have adapted a response to water insufficiency by imbibing salts into its system, as this condition would retain moisture within the plant.

A number of water retention mechanisms have been earlier described, including the inherent increase in the number of salt ions within the leaves of the plant.  Another mechanism associated with water retention is the reduction in the frequency of opening the stomata of the leaf, thus reducing the transpiration of water to the environment.  It has also been suggested that plants may have learned to survive through scarce water conditions, by adjusting their osmotic potential to only require a minute amount of hydration each day.

The study of Glenn and Brown (1998) thus investigated the response of the C4 xerohalophytic shrub Atriplex canescens on salt stress.  This shrub is generally found in saltbushes in regions of North America, where the soil is often saline and dry.  Currently, there are six varieties of Atriplex and each could be differentiated through its degree of salt tolerance and water efficiency.  Despite the established features of this plant species, the investigators wanted to determine whether there was any interrelationship between the capacity of this species to adapt to salt and water stress.  The employment of three varieties of Atriplex would also allow the investigators to probe the actual association of salt tolerance to water stress.

Briefly, seedlings of Atriplex were transplanted to three different salinity conditions, namely 0, 85 and 520 molm3, representing suboptimal, optimal and supraoptimal conditions for plant growth.  The soil used in the study consisted of a mixture of river sand and peat-based potting soil, of which the mean initial water content was estimated to be 0.899 Lpot.  The seedlings were maintained in a greenhouse that had day temperatures ranging from 25oC to 35oC and light transmission of 65.  The seedlings were allowed to grow until 80 of the plant was wilted.  The plants were also measured for growth, as well as cation content and efficiency of use of water.  The results of the study showed that combinatorial effect of salt and water stress was not additive or increased, but instead, facilitated in the growth and survival of the plant.  The researchers found that seedlings that were subjected to higher salt conditions performed better under insufficient water conditions, as compared to seedlings that were subjected to optimal and suboptimal salt conditions.

Critique of the article
The research article of Glenn and Brown (1998) is a very informative report on the response of three varieties of Atriplex to varying external conditions.  The results of their study were novel because contrary to what has been upheld for decades, the plants they studied did not experience an additive impact when two external factors were introduced.  It has long been thought that the occurrence of two stressful factors to a plant would result in a double burden on the plant and that its capacity for growth and development would be significantly retarded.  However, this research report changes the belief that the effect of two stress factors would add up and impose developmental problems to plants.

The presentation of the rationale of the study was very clear.  The investigators explained the current concepts that have been established with regards to optimal growth and development of plants.  The citations of prior research reports are also comprehensive, as the investigators attempted to fully explain the basis and objectives of their study.  The methodology of the study was also good, wherein they attempted to keep the conditions of the experiment constant, except for the variable factors.  For example, the amount and components of the soil mixture was precisely determined based on weight.  In addition, the growth stage of the seedlings at the start of the study was also determined to be almost within the same range.

The data collected from the study was clearly presented, as seen in the graphs and tables.  The graphs for each plant variety clearly showed that there was indeed a difference in the growth and development of the seedlings based on the amount of salt in the soil.  The tables also showed that the investigators were cautious in the analysis of their data, as shown in their employment of the statistical test of analysis of variance (ANOVA).  This statistical test has the capability of identifying any significance differences between experimental conditions.  The investigators also employed the calculation of standard errors, which could also determine the robustness of the values of their measurements.  The data presented in the articles strongly support the conclusions of the investigation, wherein seedlings subjected to higher salt concentrations performed better than those subjected to normal or optimal external conditions.  The paper clearly presented their bottom line that salt and water stress did not impose an additive effect on the growth and development of the Atriplex varieties.

One weakness of the study was that the investigators did not attempt to determine any genetic factors that may have influenced such performance in salt conditions.  It is possible that there are certain genes that have been activated in the seedlings when a change in its external environment is detected.  For example, there are heat shock genes that are activated when an organism is exposed to extreme temperatures.  It is thus likely that the plants in this study were capable of activating salt and water shock genes that allowed them to adapt and ultimately survive such specific conditions.  The genetics aspect of this study may be performed through the rapid amplification of polymorphic DNA (RAPD) analysis, which can generate a DNA profile of each seedling.  It would also have been more informative if the investigators presented any tissues sections that would show how water and salt stress have affected the internal structure of the growing plants.
 
The tables and figures of the research article are clearly presented and easily understood.  The labels of each axis and column are properly labeled and thus as a reader, there is no difficulty in finding any information of interest from the report.  However, it would have been more interesting if the investigators provided images of the plant itself, possibly comparing a normal, affected and wilted plant.

Red wine is in alcoholic a beverage that is typically prepared using fermented grape juice. Like any other alcoholic beverages, it is often considered to include empty calories because it came from chemical balance of grapes such that they can ferment without the addition of enzymes, acids, sugars and other nutrients. Moreover, it is created by fermenting crushed grapes using different kinds of yeast and these yeasts consume all the sugar found in the grapes and converts them into alcohol.

The color red of the wine is derived from various assortment of grape variety ranging from reddish, deep purple and even blue on the color scale. It is the grape skins that are accountable for the red wine unique color spectrum. The skins are the one responsible for the contact with the substance during fermentation process that allows dispersion of both color and tannins. Today there are approximately 50 key red wine varieties that are being sold in the market.

Background of the Study
Red wine includes a naturally affluent source of natural antioxidants that can protect the body from oxidative stress and age related diseases. Researchers also investigated that the benefits of red wine in moderate amount (doctors suggest to drink one serving a day for women and two drinks a day for men) lowers the risk of heart attack. Other studies also proved that it can raise good cholesterol and avoid bad cholesterol from forming. Thus, preventing blood clots and lessens the blood vessel that damage the caused of fat deposits. Today many people are drinking red wine because of its nutritional value.

Nutritional Facts of Red Wine
Using information from U.S. Department of Agriculture and other public sources, nutritional analyses were obtained (see table 1). Although different types of red wine content may vary depending on the brand like Chardonnay or Zinfandel which contain more percent of alcohol content, data that were used base on the standard analysis of U.S. Department of Agriculture.

Nutrition Facts
Serving Size 5 oz (147 g)  Servings per ContainerAmount per ServingCalories 102.06Calories from Fat 0Percent daily value Total Fat 0g0Saturated Fat 0g0Cholesterol 0g0Sodium 7.09mg0.3Total Carbohydrate 2.41g1Dietary Fiber 0g0Sugars 0g0Protein 0.28g0.44Vitamin A 0        Vitamin C 0Calcium 0           Iron 0Thiamine 0.01    Riboflavin 0.04Niacin 0.11         Folate 0 Percent Daily Values are based on a 2000 calorie diet. Your daily values may be higher or lower depending on your calorie needs INGREDIENTS FERMENTED GRAPE JUICE. NATURAL SULFITES USED AS A PRESERVATIVE. YEAST AND FINING MATERIALS (EGG WHITE, BENTONITE, ISINGLASS OR OTHER INGREDIENTS) MAY HAVE BEEN USED IN PRODUCTION BUT DO NOT REMAIN IN THE FINISHED WINE.Table 1. Analysis of U.S. Department of Agriculture on red wine nutritional value

Nutritional Benefits of Red Wine
For over many years, researchers have indicated that moderate drinking of alcohol improves cardiovascular health. In fact, in 1992 researches in Harvard University included moderate alcohol intake as one of the eight proven ways to lessen coronary heart disease risk. Primarily, the researchers suggested drinking red wine as the most beneficial alcoholic beverage to heart health. They found out that cardioprotective effect has been characterized to the present of antioxidants present in the skin and seeds of red grapes. Also they found out that antioxidants called flavonoids can reduce the risk of coronary heart disease in three ways a) lessening the production of low density lipoprotein (LDL) or much also know as bad cholesterol b) inducing high density lipoprotein (HDL) and c) reducing blood clotting.

Recent study shows that moderate drinking of red wine maybe beneficial to more than just an individual heart. Study showed that the antioxidant resveratrol (prevalent into the skin of red grapes) may restrain tumor development that can cause cancer. Also, same study indicates that the resveratrol aided in the formation of nerve cells that is very helpful e treatment of neurological diseases like Parkinson and Alzheimers disease.

Conclusion
The study shows that drinking of red wine can have nutritional effect to an individual. However, the key to reaping the health benefits of this alcoholic beverage is to have moderate consumption. Men are suggested to drink one to two servings per day while women should only consume one serving per day. On the other hand, this is not to say that an individual should start drinking alcohol if they do not. Debate still continues on whether or not red wine should be incorporated to the lifestyle traits of an individual since it gives long healthy life for many wine (including red wine) drinkers. However, the evidence are seems clear that regular and moderate drinking of red wine is beneficial to an individual health.

Abstract
Anabolic Steroids are usually administered as a medical treatment for certain diseases and physical abnormalities. It is a group of synthetic hormones derived from testosterone. It is normally used to create a balance between the hormones, for leukemia treatment, and to increase the appetite of patients with chronic diseases such as cancer and AIDS.  However, due to its potential, Anabolic Steroids are known to be used for non-medical reasons. Unauthorized use of anabolic steroids has very dangerous effects on the human body. If used in high dosages and administered improperly, it could damage our reproductive system as well as important organs such as the liver, the heart and the brain. It is important to learn how Anabolic Steroids affect our body functions in order to prevent and avoid unauthorized use.

Anabolic Steroid (AS) is a group of synthetic hormones derived from testosterone. It was created for medical treatment of diseases and physical abnormalities. It has the ability to produce numerous physiological effects including increased protein synthesis, muscle mass, strength, appetite and bone growth. Anabolic Steroids can be taken orally or parenterally. These controlled drugs are effective and beneficial if administered properly. Below are some medical conditions that can be effectively treated with Anabolic Steroids with proper usage and dosage.

Leukemia Treatment Anabolic Steroids can stimulate the bone marrow and increase production of red blood cell.

Solution to delayed puberty   It can stimulate the hormones to induct puberty for body development.

Treating Angioedema   It can minimize or eliminate swelling of face, arms, legs, throat, windpipe, bowels, or sexual organs.

Treatment of chronic conditions such as cancer and AIDS   It can stimulate appetite and promotes steady intake of food that can boost the immune system.

Treatment for deteriorating body mass and bone loss in elderly men as well as increasing sexual libido.

Hormone Replacement Therapy   It is an effective treatment for men with low level of testosterone.

Therapy after severe injury   Anabolic Steroids can help bones and muscles growth and development in physical therapy.

However, taking anabolic steroids has its side effects. Taking it without a medical   prescription has serious adverse effects which can jeopardize ones health. Extensive studies have been made with the side effects of orally administered AS. It has shown that the majority involves hospitalized patients who are treated for prolonged periods for various diseases, such as anemia, renal insufficiency, impotence, and dysfunction of the pituitary gland. Anabolic Steroids are also known to enhance athletic performance. Athletes using Anabolic Steroids are most likely at risk since they are consuming more than the recommended dosage for medicinal therapy. The side effects vary on frequency and severity and depend on several factors such as dosage, duration, method of how it was used, (oral or parenteral), and their bodys response.

A normal human body produces its own testosterone so adding more than necessary can have negative effects on the body. Prolonged use of Anabolic Steroids in unregulated or high doses will signal the body to minimize the production of its own testosterone. It causes defect of the gonads called Hypogonadism. Hypogonadism affects the brain specifically the pituitary gland that signals the production and release of Luteinizing Hormone (LH) and Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH). LH and FSG are serum concentrations of gonadotropins which are responsible in the production and regulation of hormones in the reproductive system. A moderate decrease of gonadotropin secretion causes atrophy of the testes and decrease of sperm cell production. Testicular dysfunctions like Oligospermia (absence of semen) and Azoospermia (absence of sperm) are other effects of Anabolic Steroids. These factors cause male infertility. Some studies suggest that  stacking  or using more than one type of anabolic steroid at the same time causes a stronger inhibition of the gonadal functions than using one single Anabolic Steroid. After abstention from anabolic steroids, these changes in fertility usually reverse within a month or two. However, several cases have been reported in which the situation of Hypogonadism lasted for more than 12 weeks.

Another side effect of Anabolic Steroids in males is Gynecomastia. It is a breast formation caused by increased levels of circulating estrogens. Naturally, male human body has a low level of estrogens and its function is to stabilize androgens or testosterone to a normal level. If the male body detects increase in the testosterone level, it reacts and produces more estrogens to balance it. The human body can convert Anabolic Steroids into estrogens. Estrogens stimulate breast growth or gynecomastia which is irreversible. Also, prolonged and unregulated use of Anabolic Steroids increases Dihydrotestosterone  or DHT. It can accelerate baldness and may cause prostate cancer.

It has also been reported that Anabolic Steroids users experience increase in sexual desire. However, the frequency of erectile dysfunction will increase as well. It may sound contradictory but sexual appetite is androgen dependent while erectile function is a complex interaction of psychological, neural (brain signals), vascular (blood flow) and endocrine (hormones) factors. Anabolic Steroids affect all of these four factors.

Female Anabolic Steroids users are also affected. In a female human body, small amounts of testosterone are also produced and increasing the level by administration of Anabolic Steroids will affect the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis. The presence of abnormal male hormones in females will result to inhibition of follicle formation, ovulation, and irregularities of the menstrual cycle or Amenorrhoea (absence of mentrual period). Other side effects of anabolic steroid use in females are increased sexual desire and hypertrophy of the clitoris.

Although it has not been systematically studied and tested, there are some cases of pregnant women that took Anabolic Steroids and experienced fetal growth retardation, pseudo-hermaphroditism or having undistinguished genitals at birth, and even fetal death. Since testing cannot be done with pregnant women, it is theorized that the severity of the side effects is likely related to the dosage, duration of use and the type of the drug. Other side effects of Anabolic Steroids in women are appearance of facial hair growth and breast atrophy. There are also irreversible side effects like lowering of the voice, decreased breast size and clitoris hypertrophy. Females may also develop masculine facial traits, male muscularity, and coarsening of the skin.

Some doctors may prescribe Anabolic Steroids to induce puberty to children experiencing delayed pubertal stage. There have been reported cases of premature closure of the epiphysis resulting to stunted growth. There are cases of Gynecomastia or breast growth as well.

There were also frequent reports of hypertrophy of sebaceous glands that causes acne. There is some evidence that Anabolic Steroids abuse may affect the immune system, leading to a decreased effectiveness of the defense system. Steroid use decreases the glucose tolerance, while there is an increase in insulin resistance. These changes mimic Type II diabetes. It may also affect the thyroid function. Administration of Anabolic Steroids has been found to decrease Thyroid Stimulating Hormone or TSH, Thyroid Binding Globulin or TBG and the products of the thyroid gland. These changes are reversed within weeks after abstention from the drugs.

Aside from the effects of Anabolic Steroids with the hormones and the reproductive system, it also has adverse effects on the internal organs such as the liver. Orally administered Anabolic Steroids could damage the liver more than the parenterally administered or Injectable Anabolic Steroids. However, lesions of the liver have also been reported after parenteral administration. It has been observed that patients with abnormal liver functions are more at risk. Appearances of tumors or cysts have also been reported. Usually, the tumors are benign. However, there are some indications that consistent administration of anabolic steroids in athletes may lead to malignant tumors that can cause liver cancer. Malignant tumors or hepatic carcinoma is often asymptomatic and very hard to detect. Both cysts and tumors can also rupture that may cause internal bleeding or death.

Anabolic Steroids can also affect the circulatory system. Users are more at risk of cardiovascular diseases. It elevates blood pressure and causes harmful changes in cholesterol level. Studies proved that some Anabolic Steroids can cause increase of LDL or bad cholesterol and decrease of HDL or good cholesterol. Anabolic steroids have been shown to alter fasting blood sugar and glucose tolerance tests.

Using Anabolic Steroids or having abnormal amount of testosterone  also has  psychological effects. Some studies suggest that users develop aggressiveness, temperamental issues and criminal tendencies. There were reports of violent behavior, criminal and sexual assaults in individuals taking Anabolic Steroids. It is commonly called Roid Rage. Other psychological side effects of Anabolic Steroids are euphoria, confusion, sleeping disorders, pathological anxiety, paranoia, and hallucinations. Anabolic Steroids users may also become dependent to the drug and cessation to it may result to withdrawal symptoms. The symptoms consist of aggressive and violent behavior, mental depression with suicidal behavior, mood changes, and in some cases, acute psychosis.

The aim of the experiment was to come up with an easy biomarker that can be used to differentiate between different pollutants and environmental stressors and the effect they cause upon the life cycle of vertebrates and invertebrates. Specifically the experiment addressed the effects of PCB in the embryo of avian and Diporeia.  

The samples were collected manually. The great blue heron eggs were harvested from nests on tree while Diporeia was collected from Lakes Michigan and Superior. The samples were subjected to two main analyzed using Gas chromatography and Mass Spectrometry (GS-MS). Refrigeration and temperature control devises were used in the preparation of the samples as well as in storage. Results indicated that 332 metabolites were observed in the embryo of the heron with different degree of exposure to PCBs while the correlation between the distributions of the metabolites between the two lakes indicates that only eight out of the total possible 332.

It was found out that PCBS and farm herbicides indeed hinder the embryonic development of amino acids and fatty acids as well. The chemicals interfere with the natural metabolic pathway by acting either as inhibitors, parasitic enzymes as well as cancerous cells within the embryo developing within the region of discussion.  

Introduction.
The aim of the paper is to devise an easy sensitive biomarker that can be used to differentiate the effects of different pollutants and environmental stressor on the life development of embryos of great blue heron and account for the decrease of Diporeia especially when exposed to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and atrazine. The experiment come as a wake up call to discover the environmental effect of PCBs exposed to sediments and waters bodies in the Indiana area. The experiment is to find out how many of the PCBs affected embryo of great blue heron would hatch, try to account for the decrease in population of Diporeia in the Lake Michigan that has in turn led to the decrease of fish population. The method of study included usage of Mass Spectrometry (MS) that according to metabolomics can easily measure the total concentration of metabolites present in an individual.

Two main methods were used in the experiment that involved two more controls experiments. Gas chromatography coupled up with Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) was used as the separation analytical method since it allows a wide range of metabolites to be measured under high resolution. The Detection method that was applied was Mass Spectrometry (MS) that identified and quantified the metabolites after the GC separation. MS allows identification by use of well established reference in fragmentation patterns. Hence great blue heron metabolomes were exposed to varied concentrations of PCB. Two control experiments were set up whereby freshwater amphipod from Lakes Michigan and Superior were exposed to firstly PCB and a second sample was exposed to atrazine for comparison studies. The results of the experiment confirm that the amount of PCBs exposed to Heron eggs ranged from 164-to-27,703 gkg.  A table summarizes the effects of PCBs in great blue heron embryo indicate that a total of 332 metabolites positively identified and exposed to PCBs at different concentrations.  Figure two (page 18) reveals that 37 metabolites were exposed to low concentration of PCB of 165 to 375 ppb while151 were exposed to moderate concentrations wit some 13 metabolites fell in between the concentrations of the two ranges. In the moderate concentration that was between 1500 and 2000 a total of 151 metabolites were exposed with unique 13 metabolites occupying the space concentration between 376 and 1499 ppb. Other unique metabolites identified include 29 metabolites that strategically occupied the positions between moderate concentration and high concentration of 5500-27,000 ppb that had 43 and 13 metabolites that occupied the concentration between low PCB and high PCB concentrations. Further 35 tactful metabolites were exposed to concern all the three concentrations. The Atrazine study revealed 316 metabolites of which 67 showed a unique sign while 74 got exposed to atrazine. Eventually only eight metabolites were realized to be shared across the two lakes.

The tables and figures used in the research study need to be opened up for better interpretation date since the design are a bit complex and in need of a some time in order to be interpreted. The figures lack more information about the shared populations. At the same time the Figure A should have been separated further to include percentages of the metabolites that were shared and unique for easier interpretation. Also the tables miss to identify key metabolite that acted as inhibitors, parasitic and enzymatic metabolites. A bar graph could have been included to further explain the relationship between high concentration levels of PCB and embryo development at different ages. A possible sigmoid chart is missing to correlate the difference and similarities that can observed during presence of amino acids and fatty acids with the concentration of atrazine.      

The experiment assumed advanced methods with unbiased control elements being applied since metabolites were collected from only two lakes and in specifically identified places in order to keep the results distinctly pronounced. Yolk samples were sampled using GCMS method that gave results that could have been translated to more tables and graphs to reflect peaks and troughs that can be use fragmentation patters to identify apart. Thus the experiment design was laudable in response to the results since the GC-MS combined sampling methods are the best so far doe metabolic experiments that allow easy and well organized coverage of the sample ranges and sizes. Moreover, MS presents a researcher with the ability to simultaneously measure concentrations of many metabolites from a single metabolite with remapping of the profile across the population by using the fragmentation patterns. Therefore possible biased results were controlled at the analytical stage. The only controls employed in the experiment the use of parallel samples from two lakes as to avoid replica of the expected experiment results by application of correlative studies. The range of samples replica that were chosen to be controls were expected to give very accurate information about metabolites according to the guidelines of the experiment.

The experiment concluded that among the avian and other egg-laying vertebrates, the embryonic stage growth is fundamental and prone to egg nutrition set up that can easily be upset by the presence of PCB. Seemingly atrazine reduces the amount of amino acids and fatty acids of the Diporeia species leading to poor growth and reproduction due to direct health impacts. Moreover, rarely does the author delve unto the cause of presence of some fatty acids in Lake Superiors Diporeia that are missing from Lake Michigan species of Diporeia thus preempting the probability that the experiment is non-conclusive.
The authors conclusion is very weak since instead of discussing encompassing information about the meaning and possible conclusions that can be formed about the experiment instead the author informs the audience of the results of the experiment. In the conclusion, a researcher is supposed to mention about the success and failure of the applied methodology and scientific instruments used. Moreover, the conclusion has to state whether the experiment was successful and the same marker methods can be used over and over again by future scholars. Lastly the cost of doing the experiment should be included. Consequently this paper should not be published meanwhile until all scientific research requirements are fully met and applied in the research. The experiment is quite long for the sake of identifying PCB in vertebrates and invertebrates. The methodological description lacks coherency that could be easily replicated by another researcher to ascertain the results obtained. Therefore, since the experiment controls and the actual experiments were done by the same methods that could be biased, the results can be doubted to some degree.    
In conclusion a lot of research parameters need to set in order to ascertain that the lack of amino acids and fatty acids during the experiment is not probably associated with the methodology of the experiment. These two experiments have a long methodology that ends up disrupting the original composition and weights of the samples in use therefore a wide range of differences is expected in the controls. Lastly, there is too much detail involved from the beginning to the conclusion of the experiment whereby in case of repeating the procedure there is a like hood of displaying diverse results that can fail to be used as a biomarker identification guide.      

I. Problem How does the absence of stomata in leaves affect oxygen production in plants

II. Hypothesis Oxygen production in plants is due to stomatal function and photosynthesis.

III. Related Literature of the Study
Photosynthesis is the process of food production in plants. All energy comes from the sun. Animals unlike plants do not have the capability of converting the energy of the sun to food. The whole planet is dependent on the plants to produce food. When grass is consumed by herbivores like cows or chicken, this is the chance how carnivores can then be nourished. Photosynthesis takes place due to the pigment chlorophyll. The equation for photosynthesis is

6 CO2  6 H2O ------sunlight and chlorophyll----------------- C6H12O6 6 O2

This means that 6 molecules of carbon dioxide and 6 molecules of water is transformed into glucose molecules of oxygen using sunlight and chlorophyll intervention. Plants use carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. In this way, unclean air with carbon dioxide is processed by plants to transform deadly carbon monoxide to oxygen.

The planet does not only get food from plants. They also produce oxygen that the planet needs which is essential for life on the Earth. Oxygen production is found in the leaves of plants. Oxygen production occurs in the granum of the choloroplast where light is absorbed by cholorophyll. Chlorophyll is a type of photosynthetic pigment that converts the light energy to chemical energy. This chemical energy reacts with water. The output of this reaction is the production of oxygen and glucose.

This oxygen output is one of the crucial benefits in tree planting and reforestation. With more trees in the environment, oxygen is secured. Urban areas that do not have trees suffer excessive pollution due to carbon dioxide accumulation in the surroundings. The oxygen in the earths atmosphere is entirely the product of green plants If all the plants were to die, or the earth be cut off from sunlight, the oxygen in the atmosphere would soon be gone. Even if all life were removed from the earth in a moment, the oxygen in the atmosphere would combine with rocks and soil and other inorganic materials in a fairly short time. Interestingly, the very oxygen produced by green plants is what allows life to live out of the water. Until there was oxygen in the atmosphere, there could be no ozone layer, since ozone (O3) is another form of oxygen (O2). And the ozone layer is what protects life on the surface of the earth from powerful, damaging ultraviolet radiation from the sun.

Transpiration occurs in the leaves of the plants. Transpiration is affected by different factors. It is affected by the amount of light available to the plant. The light helps the stomata to open. It also warms the leaf that speeds up respiration. Since transpiration is the evaporation of water from plant, if the plant is subjected to high temperatures, water evaporates more rapidly. To illustrate this, transpiration can occur three times faster if with a 10 percent increase in degrees centigrade temperatures. Humidity is another factor in transpiration. Transfer of liquids from two regions flow from a region that has high humidity to an area with low humidity. Water inside the plant will go out of the plant faster if the air outside the plant is drier. Wind is also a factor because wind speed affects humidity thereby affecting substance transfer. Humid air is replaced by drier air if there is available wind or breeze. Another factor that affects transpiration is the rate of how the plant water is replaced by available water in the soil. If roots fail to absorb water, there is loss of turgor pressure that brings about the closing of the stomata. Immediately, the rate of transpiration which occurs in the stomata closes, and the plant begins to wilt. The volume of water lost in transpiration can be very high. It has been estimated that over the growing season, one acre of corn plants may transpire 400,000 gallons of water. As liquid water, this would cover the field with a lake 15 inches deep. An acre of forest probably does even better.

IV. Importance of the Study
The study attempts to replicate proof that stomata presence helps plants in photosynthesis. Oxygen production of plants is a byproduct of photosynthesis. It also attempts to illustrate the transpiration process. Understanding the processes found in plants helps in the appreciation of their role in the protecting the environment and life.

Photosynthesis is one of the major reasons why the Earth is the planet for all living things. It is imperative that people understand the role of plants in photosynthesis and how photosynthesis is enhanced or hindered. Many activities by human beings lead to the environments oxygen depletion such as cutting of trees, water pollution and soil degradation. Using this experiment as guide, the young scientist can devise ways that can sustain oxygen production by taking importance in the role of plants in the environment.

V. Materials
A. Prepare the following materials
Two pop bottle terrariums.
2 bunch of plants where stems and leaves are still intact with about the amount of leaves
Well-lighted and safe area where there is sunlight
Colorless Nail Polish to coat the whole leaf.

VI. Methodology
Label the bottles A and B. A will be the control.
Get 2 stems of leaves from a nearby bush.
Apply colorless nail polish on the leaves in one bunch of plants. The whole leaf must be coated with nail polish.
Put the plants in two separate bottle containers.
Leave the containers under direct sunlight for three hours.
Observe for dewdrop accumulation in the glass jar.
Observe the color of leaves.
Observe the quality appearance of leaves.

Bottle A -  Control Bottle B     (nailpolish)

V. Results
Table 1. Oxygen Production Observation after four hours in the sunlight.
Pop Bottle Terrarium APop Bottle Terrarium BWater Drops AccumulationWater drops can be seen around the glass bottle.There are no water drops found around the glass bottle.Color of LeavesGreenPale yellowAppearance of LeavesHealthy and looking normalCurled up, wilted
After exposing the bottles under sunlight for four hours, it was observed that Control Bottle A had more moisture accumulation observed on the glass bottle compared to B. In terms of color of leaves, A had more green leaves compared to B. The leaves in bottle B started to wilt and most of the leaves were wilted. The leaves were all curled up and had started to wilt.

VI. Discussion
Coating the leaves with colorless nail polish maintained the green colors of the leaves but essentially blocked the stomata found in the leaves. Without the stomata, photosynthesis and transpiration could not take place in Bottle B.

The water found around the water bottle came from the release of water by the plants to the atmosphere. This is possible if photosynthesis is allowed to occur. Photosynthesis occurs when sunlight, air and carbon dioxide and water is present in the plant. Even though the plants used for the experiment were just cuttings for nearby bushes, the plants have existing water found inside their stems and leaves. Turgor pressure is still working at the whole duration of the experiment. Since the stomata in the control bottle was still working, and with enough sunlight, transpiration occurred transferring the water in the plant to be released toward the immediate surroundings of the plant. Since water vapor was trapped inside the water bottle, it accumulated on the glass as water droplets.

The presence of water droplets on the glass bottle signifies the amount of oxygen that was produced by the plant. Transpiration occurs in the stomata. The presence of the water droplets signify that the stomata of the leaves are working. If the stomata is present, there is a good chance to not that with enough sunlight, photosynthesis is at work. And if photosynthesis is present, oxygen which is a by product of photosynthesis is present.

On the other hand, the plant that had nail polish coated leaves had their stomata closed and inactivated. Due to this, transpiration cannot occur, that is why no moisture droplets were found on the bottle of B. Instead, the wilting of the leaves can be observed. The wilting is due to loss in turgor pressure brought about by the inability of the stomata to do its function.

VII. Conclusion
I therefore conclude that stomata presence helps oxygen production in plants.

The word cancer refers to any malignant tumor of any part of the body. According to Willis, a cancer, or a neoplasm is an abnormal mass of tissue the growth of which exceeds and is uncoordinated with that of the normal tissues and persists in the same excessive manner after the cessation of the stimuli which evoked the change. A cancer can therefore be said to be a disorder of cell growth and behavior. Cancers are one of the major causes of deaths occurring from medical conditions. Overall, it is estimated that about 1.4 million new cancer cases will occur in 2006, and 565,000 people will die of cancer in the United States. Recent estimates also from the World Health Organization suggests that cancer leads to about 12 of all human deaths, claiming over 6,000,000 lives each year, and that cancer is the second leading cause of death specifically in the United States, being responsible for approximately one in every four deaths (Aggarwal  Shishodia). Being then a serious condition, the ultimate cause of cancer needs to be found. Because cancer occurs at the cellular level, the cause has to be found at this level.

The Multistep Carcinogenesis Theory (Molecular Basis)
It has been postulated that carcinogenesis is a multistep process at both the phenotypic and the genetic levels, resulting from the accumulation of multiple mutations. Continuous buildup of somatic mutations in a particular single cell line over a long period of time results in a morphologic progression from a normal epithelium to hyperproliferative, dysplastic and finally the development of neoplastic epithelium.

Figure 1. Molecular model for the evaluation of colorectal cancers through the adenoma-carcinoma sequence.

Fig. 1 above clearly illustrates this diagrammatically with respect to the evolution of colorectal cancers through the adenoma-carcinoma sequence. DNA damage from accumulated exposure to carcinogens become obvious during the development of neoplasia. Several researchers have discovered the role of some specific genes in neoplastic transformation. These genes, when altered, ultimately result in cancer. There are four classes of these genes

Growth-promoting proto-oncogenes  which encode growth factors, growth factor receptors, proteins involved in signal transduction, cell cycle regulators and nuclear regulatory proteins.

Growth-inhibiting tumor suppressor genes  encoding proteins that regulate nuclear transcription and cell cycle such as the Rb gene, p53, BRCA-1 and BRCA-2, NF-1 and NF-2, APC, WT-1, TGF- receptor, and p16(INK4a).

Apoptotic genes (genes that regulate programmed cell death) such as bcl-2, bcl-xS, bcl-xL, bad, bid, and bax.

DNA-repair genes.

These genes affect all the stages of tumor progression. The initiation stage is fast and irreversible. It is at this stage that the cells DNA is bound and damaged, that is, mutation occurs at this stage. Promotion, which involves epigenetic mechanisms, leads to premalignancy and is generally irreversible while progression, which is due to genetic mechanisms, is the period between premalignancy and the cancer and is also generally irreversible.

Cancer Prevention Strategies
A lot of scientists and researchers believe that most cancers can be prevented, if not cured. As the popular maxim goes, Prevention is better than cure, what then are the prevention modalities in existence There are three major cancer prevention strategies the primary prevention strategy, the secondary prevention strategy and the tertiary prevention strategy. The ultimate aim of these prevention strategies is to reduce the incidence rate of cancers and therefore the fatalities caused by this condition. Primary prevention strategies involve the elimination of the etiologic and risk factors associated with the development of cancers. They prevent de novo cancer formation in an otherwise healthy individual. This may involve lifestyle modifications and the avoidance of some causative agents such as carcinogens being encountered in every individuals everyday life. Secondary prevention strategies involve the use of natural or synthetic substances to actually reduce the risk or spread of malignant tissue transformation in individuals with known premalignant lesions. One major secondary prevention strategy is cancer chemoprevention. Tertiary prevention focuses on the prevention of SPTs in patients cured of their initial cancer or individuals definitively treated for their premalignant lesions.

Cancer chemoprevention is defined as the use of natural, synthetic, or biologic chemical agents to reverse, suppress, or prevent carcinogenic progression to invasive cancer. This mode of prevention employs the use of a pharmacological approach to intervene in the process of carcinogenesis and the basis of this trial is a hypothesis that interruption of any stage of the process of cancer formation will reduce the incidence rates of cancers. Although the carcinogenic process may be driven by mutation, there are clearly many epigenetic variables, particularly those relating to the action of autocrine, paracrine, and endocrine regulatory molecules, which can also be important determinants during the twenty year or more latent period before invasion and metastasis occur. It has been found out that alterations or modulations of these regulatory pathways involved in cancer development by the use of agents that block mutations of DNA presents huge potentials for the prevention of cancer.  The concept of cancer chemoprevention, based on the successful outcome of many clinical trials, presents an attractive therapy for impeding or reversing malignant transformation.

Cancer chemoprevention trials, conducted to test chemopreventive substances, are usually conducted on high risk groups in order to test the efficacy of these agents. According to Sporn and Suh (2000), the credibility of the use of cancer chemoprevention as a serious and practical approach to the control of cancer has been greatly enhanced by the publication, over the past two years, of the results of three randomized clinical trials in the field of breast cancer. These trials were conducted using three different agents which were found to be effective in the control of cancer. These agents are raloxifene, tamoxifene, and 4-hydroxyphenylretinamide (fenretinide).

One of the most important factors in conducting chemopreventive trials is the use of intermediate markers. Because cancer progression takes a long time (years) to become obvious, the evaluation of these agents might become tedious. Monitoring intermediate markers that correlate with a reduction in cancer incidence would allow a more expeditious evaluation of potentially active chemopreventive agents. A good potential source of intermediate markers is the premalignant lesions that appear before the full-blown cancer becomes obvious. The disappearance of these premalignant lesions, during the process of conducting these trials, can be said to be proportional to the efficacy of the chemopreventive agents. According to Tsao et al (2004), they may serve as intermediate endpoints for chemoprevention trials. One of these intermediate markers is intraepithelial neoplasia (IEN), which is defined as a noninvasive lesion that has genetic abnormalities, loss of cellular control functions, and some phenotypic characteristics of invasive cancer, and that predicts a substantial likelihood of developing invasive cancer. The American Association of Cancer Research Task Force defined prevention and regression of IEN as being an important clinical trial endpoint.

As mentioned earlier, before a full blown cancer can develop, there will be the alterations of a series of processes. Some of these defects will be discussed below. The essence of this is to understand the pathways of cancer formation how they can be tackled by the use of chemopreventive agents to prevent or delay the development of neoplasia.

Molecular Basis of Cancer
It has been found out that nonlethal genetic damage lies at the heart of carcinogenesis. The genetic damage (mutations) may be as a result of the actions of environmental agents such as radiation, chemicals, biologic agents (viruses), or hereditary. The genetic hypothesis of cancer implies that a tumor mass results from the clonal expansion of a single progenitor cell that has incurred the damage (i.e., tumors are monoclonal). This means that just a single cell is required to mutate before it begins mass replication to form a tumor mass.

Also, a mutation in any member of the four classes of regulatory genes  protooncogenes (growth-promoting), tumor suppressor genes (growth inhibiting), apoptotic genes, and DNA repair genes  is required for tumor development. Unlike the tumor suppressor genes that require damages in both alleles before transformation can occur, mutant alleles of the growth promoting factors are said to be dominant because only an allele is required to become mutated in order to cause transformation. Apoptotic genes are also dominant, just like the protooncogenes. They may also behave like tumor suppressor genes. On the other hand, damage of the DNA repair genes influences the survival and proliferation of cells. This damage also influences the ability of the cell to repair nonlethal damage in other genes. And like the tumor suppressor genes, two hits are needed (i.e., damage in both alleles) in order to induce genetic instability.

The process of carcinogenesis involves many steps at both the morphologic (phenotypic) and genetic levels. At the genetic level, tumor progression results from the buildup of genetic damage that is favored in most instances by alterations in DNA repair.

Basis of Cancer Chemoprevention
Just like every other pharmacological agent, the use of chemopreventive agents depends on a number of factors. One major factor that has to be considered is the mechanism of action of the agent at all levels, that is, the genetic (molecular) level up to the systemic level, and even the organism as a whole. Based on this, there are different classes of chemopreventive agents. Some of them are

Class 1  Selective inhibitors of cyclooxygenase (COX-2). Cyclooxygenases are responsible for the synthesis of prostaglandins from arachidonic acid. The fact that inflammation has a role in carcinogenesis (causes a premalignant change) has led to the development of many new pharmacologic agents. One of these agents is Celecoxib. Celecoxib has been shown to prevent colon carcinogenesis caused by azoxymethane in a standard rat model, and is now in clinical trial in cohorts of patients at high risk, such as those with familial adenomatous polyposis, or hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer syndromes.

Class 2  These are the Selective Estrogen Receptor Modulators (SERMs). Examples include raloxifene and tamoxifene.

Class 3  Retinoids. These substances are normal regulators of the cellular differentiation and proliferation. The retinoids bind selectively to retinoid X receptors. These receptors have the ability to heterodimerize with most other components of the nuclear receptor superfamily. Some of the members of the nuclear receptor superfamily apart from the retinoid acid receptors are thyroid receptors, vitamin D receptors, and the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor- (PPAR-)   also called the  orphan  receptor. The major role of the retinoid X receptors is to modulate the effects of most other receptors. These receptors act as ligand-activated transcription factors when bound to retinoids and their mechanisms essentially depend on the retinoids capacity to regulate gene expression through nuclear transduction signal modulation mediated by nuclear retinoid receptors.

Class 4   Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor- (PPAR-) ligands. Because of the ability of PPAR- to bind both fatty acids and prostaglandins, it has also become a target for investigation in colon carcinogenesis (Sporn  Suh, 2000). The PPAR- has been exploited in the treatment of Diabetes mellitus type 2 because its ligands can stimulate cells, particularly, adipocytes, to the adipogenic effect of insulin. However, recent researches have indicated the effect of troglitazone on the differentiation of human liposarcoma cells.

Most of these classes of drugs show synergism among each other, such that, they encourage the use of combination chemoprevention therapy. Combination chemoprevention is said to be a state whereby one achieves significant synergism of two drugs to obtain a desired preventive effect, while minimizing the toxic side effects of the individual components of the combined regimen. Most new classes of chemopreventive agents that are being developed today combine the effects of different drug categories to produce a single synergistic, efficacious, and less toxic agent. It is appreciated that an effective and acceptable chemopreventive agent should have certain properties (a), little or no toxic effects in normal and healthy cells (b), high efficacy against multiple sites (c), capability of oral consumption (d), known mechanism of action (e), low cost and (f), acceptance by human population (Aziz, Kumar). One of such chemopreventive agents is Resveratrol.

Cancer Chemoprevention by Resveratrol
Resveratrol is a naturally occurring substance found in grapes, red wine, berries, and some other food products. It is a phytoalexin (polyphenolic antioxidant) found to have cancer chemopreventive activities in a number of trials. Historically, the ancient Chinese and the Japanese have used root mixtures of Plygonum cuspidatum (which is now known to contain Resveratrol) to combat skin and liver disease. The cancer chemopreventive activities was first brought to light by Jang et al who demonstrated that demonstrated that Resveratrol possesses cancer chemopreventive activity against all the three major stages of carcinogenesis, i.e., initiation, promotion and progression (Cai, Udeani, Slowing et al, 1997.).

    trans-Resveratrol        cis-Resveratrol
Figure 2. The chemical structure of cis- and trans-Resveratrol
Resveratrol, also known as trans-resveratrol, has the chemical name of 3,5,4-trihydroxystilbene. The chemical structure of this compound is relevant in its mechanism of action. Resveratrol has two forms  the cis and the trans form. Because of the presence of multiple OH groups on the structure, resveratrol is classified as a polyphenol. Polyphenols are antioxidants that can react with a free radical to produce a more stable compound.

According to Jang et al (1997), Resveratrol has the following properties (i), acts as an antioxidant and antimutagen (ii), induces phase II drug-metabolizing enzymes (anti-initiation activity) (iii), mediates anti-inflammatory effects (iv), inhibits cyclooxygenase and hydroperoxidase functions (anti-promotion activity) and (iv), induces human promyelocytic leukemia cell differentiation (anti-progression activity). Apart from these properties, resveratrol also has antiproliferative properties on epithelial cells.

Resveratrol is also associated with a new concept  the French paradox. It has been discovered that the incidence rate of some co-morbid conditions such as coronary heart disease and some types of cancers is very low among members of the French population. This is in spite of the fact that the average French diet consists of high fat-containing foods such as butter, cheese, cream, etc. When the average French diet was compared to a typical American diet, it was found out that a typical French diet contains approximately 15 more saturated fat than an American diet. This coupled with the fact that Americans exercise more than the French, it should be expected that more heart conditions should be recorded. However, the reverse is the case. This paradox has been attributed to the consumption of red wine by French people.

Role of Resveratrol in Cancer
A lot of epidemiological studies have been conducted on the effect of resveratrol in preventing cancers. This effect varies among different types of cancers. Each of these cancers will be discussed below, along with the resveratrol effect.

1. Resveratrol and Breast Cancer
Breast cancer is one of the most prevalent and deadly cancers. It a major cause of deaths worldwide. It is also the most common cancer in women. High incidence rates of breast cancers have also been reported among the male population. It is estimated that 203,500 new cases of invasive breast cancer will be diagnosed in 2002, and that 39,600 women will die from the disease. The associated risk factors include older age, higher body mass index, alcohol consumption, hormone replacement, prior radiation exposure, nulliparity, family history, gene carrier status of BRCA1 and BRCA2, and prior history of breast neoplasia.

Resveratrol has been found to exert a direct antiproliferative role on the rapidly proliferating breast cancer cells in spite of the presence of estrogen receptors on the cells. Several in vitro studies have shown that resveratrol inhibited growth of 4T1 breast cancer cells in a dose- and time dependent manner, however, resveratrol was found to have no effect on the growth of 4T1-implanted tumors or its metastasis when administered intraperitoneally daily (1, 3, or 5 mgkg) for 23 days starting at the time of tumor inoculation.

The controversy exists that resveratrol is either an estrogen receptor (ER) agonist or antagonist. It is however presumed that resveratrol works with the estrogen receptor to block its activation. Also, resveratrol has been found to inhibit the proliferation of a particular ER negative human breast carcinoma cell line MDAMB-468. In addition, resveratrol significantly elevated the expression of the growth inhibitor TGF-2 mRNA without changes in TGF-1 and TGF-3 expression. These data suggested that resveratrol inhibits proliferation by altering autocrine growth modulator pathways in breast cancer cells.

2. Resveratrol and Prostate Cancer
Prostate cancer has become the most frequently diagnosed cancer and the second leading cause of cancer-related death for men in the United States. In the United States, the estimated incidence for the year 2004 was 230,110 new cases and 29,900 deaths while the lifetime risk of developing prostate cancer is 19. The risk factors for developing prostate cancer include older age, family history, race and ethnicity, and possibly dietary fat. Because of the increasing incidence rates of prostate cancer, several therapies have been sought in order to combat this cancer.

Several researches have evaluated the effect of resveratrol on prostate cancer development. The major effect of this agent is to inhibit the proliferative abilities of the malignant cells. Hsieh and Wu (1999) investigated the effects of resveratrol on growth, induction of apoptosis, and modulation of prostate-specific gene expression using DU-145, PC-3, and JCA-1 human prostate carcinoma cells. The results of this study have suggested that resveratrol inhibits the growth of CaP cells by inducing apoptosis, and also by inhibiting mitogenesis in a specific way.

Recent studies showed the unique ability of resveratrol to exert opposing effects on two important processes in cell cycle progression, induction of S phase and inhibition of DNA synthesis in prostate carcinoma cells. A mechanistic basis for the efficacious role of resveratrol in prostate cancer has been developed by Seeni et al (2008). The study was conducted using the Transgenic Rat for Adenocarcinoma of Prostate (TRAP) model.  This in vivo experiment featured the rat probasin promoterSV T 40 antigen. It was found out that resveratrol suppressed prostate cancer growth and induction of apoptosis through androgen receptor (AR) down-regulation, without any sign of toxicity (Seeni et al, 2008). Resveratrol not only downregulated androgen receptor (AR) expression but also suppressed the androgen responsive glandular kallikrein 11 (Gk11), known to be an ortholog of the human prostate specific antigen (PSA), at the mRNA level (Seeni et al, 2008). The results of the experiment are stated below

Table 2. Incidences of Prostate Adenocarcinomas in TRAP Rats Treated with Resveratrol
Source Seeni et al (2008)

TreatmentNo. of ratsIncidence of Adenocarcinoma ()VentralLateralDorsalAnteriorControl1211 (92)4 (33)00Resveratrol 50gml1210 (83)2 (17)00Resveratrol 100gml1210 (83)5 (42)00Resveratrol 200gml129 (75)2 (17)003. Resveratrol and Lung Cancer

The leading cause of cancer deaths in the world is lung cancer. For the year 2004, 173,770 new cases and 160,440 deaths are anticipated in the United States (Tsao et al, 2004). Lung cancer is also one of the most preventable forms of cancer because its most important risk factor, smoking, can easily be avoided in both youths and adults. Other risk factors for lung cancer, apart from smoking, includes exposure to carcinogenic agents such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, asbestos, radon, nickel, benzoapyrene, etc exposure to ionizing radiation and infectiousinflammatory conditions of the lungs such as chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (COPD)  chronic bronchitis and emphysema.

A study carried out by Kimura and Okuda (2000) evaluated the effects of stilbene glucosides extracted from some grapes on tumor growth and lung metastasis in mice bearing highly metastatic Lewis lung carcinoma (LLC) tumors. It was found out that tumor growth in the right hind paw and lung metastasis were inhibited by oral administration of resveratrol 3-O-D-glucoside and 2,3,5,4-tetrahydroxystilbene-2-O-D-glucoside for 33 consecutive days, in LLC-bearing mice (Kimura  Okuda, 2000). The results of the study are as follows as stated by Aziz and Kumar (2003)

Inhibition of DNA synthesis in LLC cells by Resveratrol 3-O-D-glucoside at a concentration of 1000M, but not at lower concentrations.

Inhibition of DNA synthesis in LLC cells by 2,3,5,4-Tetra-hydroxystilbene- 2-O-D-glucoside also (IC50  81M).

In addition, both stilbene glucosides were found to inhibit the formation of capillary-like tube networks (angiogenesis) of HUVECs at concentrations of 100-1000M.

The conclusion of the authors of this study shows that the activities of these resveratrol variants may be as a result of inhibition of DNA synthesis in LLC cells and the inhibition of angiogenesis in HUVECs.

4. Resveratrol and Skin Cancer
According to the World Cancer Report, skin cancer constitutes 30 of all newly diagnosed cancers in the world and solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation, particularly its ultraviolet B (UVB) component (290320nm), is an established cause of 90 of skin cancers (Aziz, Reagan-Shaw  Wu et al, 2005). Associated risk factors for skin cancer include childhood and chronic sun exposure, individual susceptibility with red or blond hair and fair-skinned phenotype, older age, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon, immunocompromised status, or xeroderma pigmentosum.

A study carried out by Aziz et al (2003) evaluated the chemopreventive effects of resveratrol on the development of skin cancers in hairless mice. SKH-1 hairless mice were subjected to chronic UVB exposure (180mJcm2, twice weekly) for a period of 28 weeks resulting in the development of a variety of skin tumors. Two protocols were observed in conducting this experiment. The results, as shown in Figure 3 below, clearly demonstrate that topical application of resveratrol on mouse skin (pre- and post-treatments) resulted in a highly significant inhibition of tumor incidence ( mice with tumors) and a significant delay in the onset of tumorigenesis (Aziz et al, 2003). Also, resveratrol treatment also significantly reduced tumor multiplicity (tumorsmouse), measured as a function of time, compared with UVB alone group.

In another recent study, the involvement of the nuclear transcription factor B pathway in the development of skin cancer and the chemoprevention of UV damage by resveratrol was demonstrated. Based on this research on normal human epidermal keratinocytes, resveratrol was found to block UVB (40mJcm2)-mediated activation of NF-B in a dose (5, 10 and 25M resveratrol for 24 h)- as well as time- (5M resveratrol for 12, 24 and 48 h) dependent fashion.

Resveratrol treatment of keratinocytes was also found to inhibit UVB-mediated (i), phosphorylation and degradation of IB and (ii), activation of IKK. Based on these data, we suggested that NF-B pathway plays a critical role in the chemopreventive effects of resveratrol against the adverse effects of UV radiation including photocarcinogenesis.

Figure 3. Effect of resveratrol treatments on UVB exposure-mediated skin tumorigenesis in SKH-1 hairless mice. Source Aziz et al (2003).

5. Resveratrol and Colorectal Cancers
Cancers of the colon are rated to be the third leading cause of cancer-related death in both men and women. Epidemiological studies have shown that colon cancers are more prevalent in areas where diets low in fiber, folate and calcium are consumed. Other risk factors associated with colon cancers include obesity, sedentary lifestyle, male gender, alcohol, smoking, fatty foods, etc. Stronger, albeit less prevalent, risk factors that are more significant include inflammatory bowel disease and genetic disorders such as familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP) and hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC).

Studies conducted by Schneider et al (2000) investigated the effects of resveratrol on the growth and polyamine metabolism of CaCo-2 human colon cancer cells. These CaCo-2 human colon cancer cells were treated with 25M resveratrol and were found to cause a 70 growth inhibition. The cell cycle was halted between the synthesis (S) and the gap-2 (G2) phase. Also, resveratrol caused a significant decrease of ornithine decarboxylase (ODC) activity, a key enzyme of polyamine biosynthesis (which is enhanced in cancer growth), indicating that polyamines might represent one of several targets involved in the anti-proliferative effects of resveratrol.

In another study, vaticanol C, a resveratrol tetramer isolated from the stem bark of Vatica rassak, was found to markedly suppress growth of cancer cells by an induction of apoptosis, which was characterized by nuclear changes and DNA ladder formation, in three different human colon cancer cell lines.

Again, resveratrol has been found to increase caspase-3 (apoptotic protein) activities at 24 and 48 hour post-treatments. This study, conducted by Wolter et al (2001), investigated the effect of resveratrol on the human colonic adenocarcinoma CaCo-2 cells and was found to inhibit growth and proliferation of CaCo-2 cells in a dose-dependent manner (12.5-200M) (Wolter et al, 2001). Resveratrol also, during the course of this experiment, disturbed cell cycle progression from the S to G2 phase at 50M, whereas higher concentrations led to reversal of the S phase arrest. Levels of cyclin D1 and cyclin-dependent kinase (cdk) 4 proteins were found to decrease by resveratrol-treatment. The conclusion of this study is that resveratrol exerts its chemopreventive activities by inhibiting the cell cycle.

6. Resveratrol and Other Cancers
Resveratrol exerts chemopreventive effects on almost all cancers. Apart from the effects listed above, resveratrol also inhibits the development of some other cancers.

The role of resveratrol in preventing blood cancers was tested by Surh et al (1999). In this study conducted on cultured human promyelocytic leukemic cells, the growth inhibitory and antiproliferative properties of resveratrol were suggested to be attributable to its induction of apoptotic cell death as determined by morphological and ultrastructural changes, internucleosomal DNA fragmentation, and increased proportion of the sub-diploid cell population coupled with the fact that resveratrol treatment resulted in a gradual decrease in the expression of anti-apoptotic Bcl-2.

Another study has shown that resveratrol also exerts its antiproliferative effects on thyroid cancer cell lines. The experiment studied the effects of resveratrol on two papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC) and two follicular thyroid carcinoma (FTC) cell lines. The results showed activation and nuclear translocation of mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) viz. extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)-1 and -2. Cellular abundance of the oncogene suppressor protein p53, serine phosphorylation of p53, and abundance of c-fos, c-jun, and p21 mRNAs were also increased by resveratrol. It was therefore concluded that resveratrol induces the apoptosis of papillary and follicular cell lines in thyroid carcinomas.

Not much has been done as regards the role of resveratrol in preventing liver cancers. However, Carbo et al (1999) demonstrated that resveratrol administration to rats inoculated with a fast growing tumor (the Yoshida AH-130 ascites hepatoma) caused a very significant decrease (25) in the tumor cell content. This was presumed to be due to the inhibition of the gap-2 (G2)  Mitosis phase of the cell cycle. Also, flow cytometric analysis of the tumor cell population revealed the existence of an aneuploid peak (representing 28 of total), which suggested that resveratrol causes apoptosis in the tumor cell population resulting in a decreased cell number. Sun et al (2002) demonstrated that resveratrol inhibited the growth of hepatoma cells line H22 in a dose- and time-dependent manner via the induction of apoptosis.

Conclusion
Several experiments have confirmed the fact that resveratrol, a phytoalexin (polyphenolic antioxidant), indeed has antiproliferative effects on cancers. They have also shown that apart from its role in preventing cardiovascular diseases, it inhibits all the three stages of malignant transformation initiation, promotion and progression. At the present, epidemiological studies on resveratrol have suggested that it merits human consumption in food sources such as red wine, berries, grapes, etc. The success of resveratrol as a chemopreventive agent depends on vigorous and extensive testing on suitable human populations. Its pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics needs to be extensively tested. Resveratrol has shown remarkable potentials in the fight against cancer. However, there is still a lot to be done as regards its use as a potent and efficacious chemopreventive agent against cancer.

1. Introduction
When we talk about ethics in medical science what we refer to are the practices followed in delivering a suitable solution that would not only help the patient but would also not affect or jeopardise the life of any other living being. There is a very thin line demarcating ethical or unethical practices. Bioethics is the study of the moral principles with reference to the advancement in biotechnology and medicine and often delves into politics, law and theology.

Genetics is the latest branch of science that promises solutions for countless diseases that are known to have caused deaths or trauma to the patient as well as family members in the years before the advent of genetics. This branch of science goes deep into the matter that causes these diseases and tries to cure them from the root. Study of genomics deals with the constitution or the make up of every living body.

The term bioethics was coined by Fritz Jahr in 1927 from Greek bios  life and ethos- behaviour. This incorporates human values as well as our contribution towards the preservation of our biosphere. But since the middle of the last decade there has been a surge in this branch of studies. What can be defined as ethical and what cannot, and why not has been subjected to debates along political, religious and socio-economic concerns.

One must keep in mind that genetics has been used by man since time immemorial to create hardy pest-resistant and high-yielding varieties of crops and cattle. However, since the advancement in genetics has got a sudden boost due to the other advancements in technology like electroplating and electron microscopes, geneticists have received an impetus in the form of new equipment and motivation in the discovery of the secrets of life. In more recent years, the concerns that have been coming to the forefront, have been regarding the disclosure of the results concerning populations in a particular region and more specifically of individuals and how those results may lead to a bias in judgement.

2. Contents
This paper will deal with some of the immediate issues of involving genomics in our daily lives.
Artificial fertilization in reproduction
Human genomics
Sex selection during prenatal diagnosis
Privacy of genetic data and screening
Human gene therapy
Eugenics
Biotechnology
Cloning
Genetically Modified Organisms
Xenotransplant

2.1. Artificial fertilization in reproduction
The scientific developments that have taken place in the field of in-vitro fertilization and its use in reproduction and gene therapy, since the publishing of the Ethics, Reproduction and Genetic Control in 1987, have led to an increased interest in social and ethical aspects of tampering with nature. The fact that there has been a drastic increase in the number of couples who have problems with fertility, gives the chance of modern techniques like in-vitro fertilization and artificial insemination to prove their worth and help these couples conceive and reproduce. How these methods could be used to manipulate traits in progeny and other factors is voiced by those who study ethics in genomics. Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act that was passed in the year 1990, Chadwick, 1987 has been a significant step towards legislation of the applications of human genomics. It makes allowance for the issuing of licences for storage of gametes, treatment and research in fertility and conception disorders.

2.2 Human Genomics
Human genome analysis or genomics is the identification and analysis of the sequence of genes in the genetic make up of an individual. Decoding the genetic sequence of an individual will enable us to analyse the parts of genetic material that contribute towards a particular disorder and would provide opportunity for rectification of those that have been researched. However, the success rates of these processes and how much authority is to be given to the individual to change the genetic constitution of a living being are to be given serious thought.

Sydney Brenner, the Nobel laureate from South Africa, has said that this is the most important, most interesting and the most challenging scientific project that we have 1990, cited in Chadwick, 1992 with regard to pursuing the human genome project as he feels that this will help us understand the nature, structure and functions of our species. However, Roger Lewin disagrees and thinks it would be inappropriate allocation of research funds as others too believe that sequencing human genome will encourage stereotyping of individuals which might ignore the influences of environment on an individual. But, since the completion of this project in 2003,  man has benefitted immensely. The first instance of gene therapy was tried on a young girl in 1990, being treated at National Institutes of Health for ADA or adenosine deaminase deficiency www.history.nih.gov who is now leading a normal life. The possibilities of accurate diagnosis of diseases or prediction of the kind of diseases that a patient may fall prey to are of immense interest. On the other hand, the moral implications include causing excessive anxiety among individuals who have been tested for certain disorders. Because of the results, parents whose children have been diagnosed for vulnerability towards certain ailments may end up blaming themselves for their condition, leading to guilt and other related psychological conflicts.

2.3 Sex selection during prenatal diagnosis
The advantages attributed to prenatal diagnosis are also fraught with other kinds of dangers. One must keep in mind what kind of information is to be disclosed to the individuals or their family and what can be kept away from them. For instance, in a feudal economy where preference is given to a male child Kumar, 1985 disclosure of the gender of the foetus may lead to the unethical practise of foeticide. He mentions the presence of three groups the strict anti-abortionists, modified anti-abortionists and neutralists depending on their intensity of opposition to abortion. The neutralists believe that there is nothing wrong with the act of abortion itself, though unlimited free choice of individuals in this matter may lead to dire social consequences. The role of Church in disapproving some of these practises may be mentioned here, as it has raised several issues regarding humans playing god and going against nature.  However, one cannot do away with these tests altogether as banning these tests would also mean being left completely unaware of the presence of other grave conditions in the foetus. Pre-natal diagnosis has been one of the major breakthroughs in diagnosing human ailments and has been widely-known to prevent health complications in the foetus.

2.4. Human Gene Therapy
Gene therapy is a technique that will find wide application once it gains popularity. According to the Report on Human Genome Therapy by Prof. Harold Edgar and Prof. Thomas Tursz, UNESCO Edgar  Tursz, 1994 human gene therapy is defined as the deliberate alteration of the genetic material of living cells to prevent or treat diseases. This report mentions the cases in which gene therapy has been approved and some cases in which somatic cell gene therapy was disapproved to enhance human traits. The International Bioethics Committee engages in promoting human rights and creates awareness regarding the benefits of genetic engineering and the dangers of manipulating them for selfish gains.

2.5. Eugenics
Eugenics has been defined as an effort to improve the gene pool of a population Miller, 1997. Advocates of eugenics propound that the practise of selective breeding in humans can help in improving genetic qualities like congenital defects and overall intelligence. Chan in his paper on Eugenics Chan, 1993 writes how Singapore Ex-Premier Lee Soo-sung, blatantly expressed his belief in the endowed few who have sustained the impressive economic growth of Singapore. How this belief can affect human population and society can only be open for debate.

2.6. Biotechnology
Biotechnology is a field of biology that involves using modern technology to engineer the modification of living cells to provide some definite positive results. Biotechnology, in recent years, has been used extensively in the field of medical care, agriculture, crop production, animal rearing and environmental uses. Genetic manipulation of certain microorganisms has led to the development of many vaccines or cures for other diseases. For instance, in a very recent work by S. Lacombe and others Lacombe et al., 2010, it has been shown that interfamily transfer of plant recognition receptor bestows broad spectrum resistance to bacterial diseases.

A new development in this field has been the discovery of the immortality gene. Nanog, the master gene that allows the pluripotent stem cells to multiply limitlessly, while retaining their ability to differentiate, is predicted to help in developing embryonic stem cells for medical treatments. Bhattacharya, 2003 Even with its potential for great achievements, the use of biotechnology has been impeded time and again by certain sections of society who consider themselves the upholders of morality. The reason cited for opposition is usually that biotechnology is unnatural and blasphemous as it seeks to emulate and thereby defy god.

2.7. Cloning
Cloning may be defined as the creation of an identical genetic copy of a cell, tissue or an individual. Joshua Lederberg, the Nobel Prize winning geneticist advertised the use of genetic engineering in American Naturalist in 1966. The ethics revolving around cloning have become highly controversial. Cloning has come under the scanner because of its alleged transgression of the natural laws. The Vatican especially, has expressed its displeasure at the proliferation of research in stem-cell technology. On December 12, 2008, the Vatican released a document that opposed among other things, designer babies, human cloning and embryonic cell-research Pullela, 2008. With some people paying hundreds of dollars to create copies of their lost pets, others are wondering how long the process of cloning can be restricted before its use on humans.