Biology

Staphylococcus aureus is a widely spread microorganism on the body surfaces (especially on the skin and the mucous membranes such as nose) of human beings and warm blooded animals. Scientifically, this organism is classified as follows kingdom, bacteria phylum, firm cutes class, bacilli order, bacillales family, staphylococcaceae genus, staphylococcus and species, staphylococci. The organism has the ability to produce toxins and cause food poisoning as well as making direct infections that causes diseases such as septicemia and boils in humans. Staphylococcal food poisoning results after ingesting enterotoxins together with food in case of improper storage though direct contamination (for instance in milk) may be responsible. Besides, the microorganism can infect animals and cause inflammation of the udder. This leads to mastitis disease in dairy animals. The cells of Staphylococcus aureus are round in shape and appear as grape-like clusters under microscopic observation. Its colonies have golden-yellow color.

Staphylococcus aureus is a facultative anaerobe, gram-positive, catalase positive, and coagulase positive microorganism. Besides, it has a rigid cell wall made of peptidoglycan molecules (at least 90 thick) which gives shape to the cells besides enhancing their protection. The microorganism is usually distinguished from other staphylococci species because of its ability to produce an enzymatic compound called coagulase. This attribute makes the organism to be highly virulent and forms the basis of Staphylococcus aureus classification. Although it is coagulase-positive, some strains do not produce coagulase. Hence, catalase test is done to identify Staphylococcus aureus as it is capable of producing catalase enzyme which hydrolyzes hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen. Staphylococcus aureus thrives well in the presence of oxygen to produce enterotoxins though it also survives in anaerobic environments. However, its growth is inhibited in environments with 80 CO2. The microorganism requires an optimum temperature of 370c but it can also tolerate up to 440 c in case of high NaCL concentrations. The optimum PH for supporting its growth is at least 7.3 but maximum PH may rise up to 9.3. On the other hand, growth may be inhibited by addition 0.1 acetic acid which modifies PH value to 5.1.

Staphylococcus aureus is in particular resistant to dry conditions and is capable of growing and producing enterotoxins at low water activity values for instance 0.85. This significantly enables it to tolerate adverse conditions thus making the microorganism a good competitor. In addition, it is also capable of tolerating high concentrations NaCl for instance 25 although the levels may be as low as 10. For Staphylococcus aureus to produce toxins, it requires a PH range between 5.3 and 7.0. The minimum PH for toxin production is 4.8 and can also produce toxins at PH 9. In addition, optimum temperatures for toxin production fall between 35 0c and 400c. Besides, the least temperature for toxin production is 10oc whereas the highest temperature value goes up to 450c for toxin production. Staphylococcus aureus requires optimum water activity value of 0.9 to produce toxins. The minimum water activity value for toxin production is 0.86. High toxin levels are produced in aerobic environments. This microorganism has improved heat resistance especially in dry foods with high fat and salt content. Staphylococcus aureus is also capable of surviving frozen conditions and produce highly heat resistant toxins. Extremely high and low PH conditions are known to destroy vegetative cells of Staphylococcus aureus effectively although this may depend on the type of acid. During preservation, reduced PH, water activity, modified osmotic balance, high CO2 concentration, and use of preservatives such as benzoate and sorbate salts can be used to inhibit Staphylococcus aureus (Ministry of Health, 2000).

Microbiological Tests
Thyioglycollate broth is a media used to culture and isolate both obligate and facultative anaerobic microorganisms as well as testing sterility. Thyioglycollate and cystine in the broth, acts as reducing agents necessary for creating anaerobiosis for fastidious anaerobes. The broth has high viscosity that prohibits fast oxygen uptake. Culture medium is inoculated at the bottom of the broth and incubated for several days at 35-37oc. Gram staining is a test used to differentiate between gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. The most distinct attribute tested in this process is the composition of bacterial cell wall. Gram positive microorganisms have thick and compact cell wall that forms the outermost layer containing about 90 peptidoglycan molecule. Mannitol salt agar is normally used as either selective or differential media for gram-positive cocci. This media selects salt tolerant and fermentative microorganisms especially Staphylococcus aureus. Lactose and sucrose tests are performed to determine whether they are fermented by microorganisms in the media. This is done using Durham tubes and phenol red reagent. Deviation of color from red and production of gas bubbles are the attributes of interest.

Starch utilization test is done by inoculating the culture on a starch agar and using iodine to establish whether microorganisms present are capable of hydrolyzing the starch present by observing color change. Glucose fermentation test is done by using iron agar slant. In case fermentation takes place, fissures are formed on the surface of the media. The Indole test is usually used to differentiate between gram-positive and gram-negative organisms. The gram-negative bacteria hydrolyze tryptophan in the SIM medium. The test is done by adding three to four drops of Kovacs reagent into the culture and then observing for appearance of a red ring.

Methyl Red test is used to differentiate between those organisms which are able to reduce the PH of the inoculating media by overcoming the phosphate buffer present. After inoculation for about five to six days, methyl red is added and color observation is done. Vogues-Proskauer test tests for microorganisms which are capable of fermenting and converting acidic products to acetone concurrently. During the test, Vogues-Proskauer reagent -KOH and -Napththylamine- converts acetone into di-acetyl. It then reacts with guanidine nuclei to give a red coloration/

The Gelatin hydrolysis is done to test whether microorganisms in a cultural medium are capable of producing gelatinases from gelatin nutrient broth. Gelatinases are enzymes of protein nature. After incubation at 35-37oc, test tubes containing gelatin are put on ice. The gelatin is observed either for solidification or liquefaction.

Deoxyribonuclease (DNAse) enzyme activity test is used to differentiate between Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermis microorganisms. The culture is inoculated on DNase test agar plate which contains methyl green. Production of the enzyme is then established by looking for a pink halo around the colonies. Biochemical reactions include tests such as Coagulase and Catalase. Coagulase test identifies the Staphylococcus aureus.

This microorganism produces coagulase enzyme which renders blood plasma to clot within 24 hours of incubation at 35 oc to 37 oc. As earlier mentioned, the catalase test is used to establish the production of catalase enzyme. It properly differentiates Staphylococcus aureus from among other gram positive bacteria because of the microorganisms ability to produce catalase enzyme. Hydrogen peroxide is added to the culture medium and bubbles are observed.

Results and Conclusions
Thioglycollate Broth specifically allows only the growth of anaerobic bacteria at the lower part of the media. Aerobic microorganisms are eliminated. Staphylococcus aureus colonies demonstrate good growth and are observable due to their golden color. This differentiates them from Staphylococcus epidermitis which appear as white colonies.

Gram staining identifies Staphylococcus aureus as a gram-positive microorganism. Because there a number of gram-positive cocci such as Staphylococcus epidermitis and Staphylococcus saprophyticus, they are well differentiated using other tests as later explained.

Staphylococcus aureus ferments Mannitol Salt Agar, which contains 7.5 NaCl, into acid. This is detected by measuring the PH using an indicator and change of color from red to yellow indicates positive results. This test distinguishes Staphylococcus aureus from other gram-positive cocci for instance Staphylococcus epidermidis. The fermentation of sucrose and lactose gives positive results if the phenol-red changes to yellow color. However, this may be confused with other gram-negative which also gives positive color results such as Citrobacter fruendii. Furthermore, fermentation is evidenced by the presence of a gas bubble on the Durham tube. In both fermentations, Staphylococcus aureus do not produce any gas. In the starch test, if an organism is able to hydrolyze starch in the media, a yellow halo on the culture indicates positive results for hydrolysis. Staphylococcus aureus gives negative results in this test.

In the Iron agar test, which tests for glucose and lactose fermentation, positive results are displayed by the presence of cracks on the medium. This establishes gas production due to fermentation. Microbial fermentation changes the color from red to yellow. Further, reduction of thiosulfate in the media results in formation of a black precipitate. Usually, Staphylococcus aureus is able to give positive color results without successfully breaking down thiosulfate in the medium and producing hydrogen peroxide gas.

The Indole test gives positive results upon tryptophan hydrolysis. This is evident if a red ring appears on the culture after adding a few drops of Kovacs reagent. It is usually done to differentiate gram-negative from gram positive microorganisms.

Methyl red test reveals positive results for gram negative bacteria by observing a red color after adding methyl red reagent into the medium. Negative results are noted if yellow andor orange color appears. This test eliminates Staphylococcus aureus by giving positive results for the presence of enteric microorganisms.

Positive Vogues-Proskauer test results are evidenced by observing a red coloration on the medium whereas no color change indicates negative results. Fermentative organisms produce acetone which is further converted into diacetyl and reacts with guanidine to give positive results. Mainly, this test is done to differentiate gram negative organisms.

Gelatin test gives positive results by displaying agar liquefaction. This proofs that gelatinase enzyme was produced by the bacteria during inoculation. Negative results are evidenced by gelatin solidification. Staphylococcus aureus usually gives negative results for this test. DNAse test has positive results if a pink colored halo is produced on a clear growth on the medium. This test eliminates gram-negative bacteria to differentiate Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermis. Gram-positive cocci organisms are capable of producing DNAse enzyme. The coagulase test shows positive results if the microorganism capable of coagulating or solidifying plasma sample. It separates Staphylococcus aureus from coagulase negative microorganisms such as Staphylococcus epidermitis and Staphylococcus saprophyticus.

The Catalase test gives positive results by producing gas which is evidenced by bubble production. Absence of bubble production gives negative results. This test differentiates Staphylococcus aureus from aerobic gram-positive microorganisms. It also eliminates catalase negative microorganisms for instance enterococci and streptococci. In summary, identifying and differentiating a particular microorganism cannot be done by only a single test. However, specific attributes are significantly outstanding for instance in the case of Staphylococcus aureus. Gram staining test acts as the initial step to differentiate between gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria.  Afterwards, specific tests for instance, coagulase, starch, and Catalase further differentiate between Staphylococcus aureus and other gram positive cocci such as Staphylococcus epidermitis and Staphylococcus saprophyticus which are the most common gram-positive cocci. Coagulase test specifically differentiates Staphylococcus aureus from the others as it is the only coagulase positive microorganism.

UTSC Student Number Due to high radiation, too much sunlight can be harmful to plants and thus compensate their ability to photosynthesize. Photosynthesis has important byproducts essential to the environment and the plant itself. Extreme sunlight may give rise to high temperature that result to faster transpiration rate of plants and destruction of the cell membrane. This further leads to impaired growth, cell destruction and plant death. Thus, it is essential to determine plant mechanisms and abilities by which they are able to cope with stress such as too much radiation from the sun (The All I Need 2005). Some plants have antioxidant properties essential for their protection from the harmful rays of sun.

Antioxidants such as Vitamins E, C and carotenoids from fruits, vegetables and whole grains give protection against damages leading to diseases such as cancer and heart disease. Such diseases are brought about by the intake of free-radicals through diet and also from direct contact from the sun. Hazardous radiation from the sun such as ultraviolet rays bring about skin damages and thus can lead to skin cancer especially to people who have low melanin contents.

A plant that is said to have an antioxidant property is Yacon (Smallanthus sonchifolius). Thus juicy tuber vegetable is found in South America and is used to lower blood sugar of diabetics and also aid in better food digestion. Also, yacon syrup was found out to lead to weight loss. Bitter-melon and cinnamon are also some plants that have antioxidant abilities.

Fructose, glucose, sucrose, oligosaccharides, and traces of starch and insulin are constituents found in yacon roots mentioned by Ray. This antioxidant plant also contains small amounts of fiber, vitamins and minerals. After the extraction process done on the tuber and leaves, it was found out that yacon has high potential as antioxidant and so, yacon extract was used to treat free-radical induced diseases such as arteriosclerosis. Yacon roots can be utilized in various ways. It can be eaten raw, stewed, grated and squeezed to serve as a drink. Yacon roots can also be sliced thinly to be fried and serve as chips. Tea made from yacon leaves serve as hypoglycemic agent.

The high fructooligosaccharide content of yacon has several functions. This constituent of this tuber plant can cause the lowering of sugar, cholesterol, triglyceride and caloric level. It also prevents the development of cavities but promote the growth of beneficial bacteria like Bifidobacterium sp. By eating the plant raw may also give some of the benefits mentioned.

Phenolic acids were isolated from the crude extract of yacon leaves through TLC (Thin Layer Chromatography) plate sprayed with 1, 1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH). Some of the extracted phenolic acids found in yacon leaves and tubers are Ferulic acid and chlorogenic acid. These acids are the constituents found out to give significant inhibition activity to radicals.

A study executed by Xiaojun et al states that Smallanthus sonchifolius has important economical and clinical value because of its beneficial effects to diabetics. This was proved through the use of 1, 1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay. Methanol was use as extracting solvent and gel permeation chromatography and preparative reverse-phase HOLC was used as purification technique. Chlorogenic acid and tryptophan were the identified antioxidants through mass spectrometry. Biomimicry provides less synthetic products and produce organic products that give innovations to aid in various problems.

Abstract
Oil supertanker wrecks and breaches have devastated several pristine ocean habitats during the past 40 years. The oil spills from these disasters, often spreading hundreds or thousands of square miles across the water surface, have killed millions of birds and animals and have thrown vast ecosystems into great and enduring turmoil. The Exxon-Valdez in 1989 and the Amoco Cadiz in 1978 are prime examples of such largely preventable and unnecessary catastrophes that have left enormous tragedies in their wake. Although cleanup operations are usually initiated promptly and carried out diligently, their effectiveness could only be limited. New regulatory measures that have been enacted since the Exxon-Valdez are seeking to curb the numbers of these disasters and restrain the damage they cause even if they occur.

Introduction
We live in a world that is literally run on oil. Our economy is still very much a fossil fuel economy. Decades of unrestrained use of fossil fuels has been heavily polluting our cities and would be instrumental in unleashing global cataclysms in the future, as a result of the now virtually unstoppable global warming process. The other side of this scenario of devastating pollution is the contamination of oceans caused during the extraction of oil from the ocean beds and their subsequent transfer in giant supertankers. These supertankers routinely course the oceans bearing precariously millions of tons of crude oil in their mammoth hulls. The oceans of the world generally tend to treacherous for navigation, given to very volatile weather conditions added to this, oil rigs and oil ports are often located in remote areas of the world and the waters surrounding them tend to be especially dangerous to negotiate. Accidents tend to happen, though they need not if the responsible people exercised more care and caution in planning and carrying out these massive oil transfer operations. Accidental breaches of the tankers hulls often turn into major disasters, devastating vast ocean ecosystems.

When oil-laden supertankers meet with accidents in transit, colossal amounts of oil pour into the water and wreak havoc upon the marine environment. Although people do not usually die in such disasters, they are tragedies of enormous proportions. In the 20th century, millions of seabirds have died grueling deaths owing to oil tanker accidents, and this is just a part of a vastly bigger picture  a grim and dismal picture of widespread devastation. If we take the Exxon-Valdez disaster of 1989, which is perhaps the most well-known of oil-tankers disasters (although there have been many more oil disasters which surpass Exxon-Valdez in terms of sheer volume of the oil discharge), the numbers of the animals that perished at Prince William Sound, Alaska, as a result of this mishap are staggering. An estimated 100,000 to 250,000 seabirds, 2,000 sea otters, 300 harbor seals, 250 bald eagles and so on died in the immediate aftermath of the incident. Again, the numbers of immediately dead animals and birds is just one aspect of a much extensive ecological damage lasting years and decades, one that still continues.

The Torrey Canyon off the coast of Cornwall, UK, in 1967, the Exxon Valdez, the Baer in the Shetland Islands off the northern coast of Scotland in 1992, the Amoco Haven in the Mediterranean Sea off the Italian coast near Genoa in 1991 and the earlier Amoco Cadiz off the French Coast near Brittany in 1978  these are some of the more publicized disasters. However there have occurred many more disasters such as these, though barely making it to the headlines for more than a day or two. If the Exxon Valdez spilled 35,000 tons of crude oil into the ocean, the Gulf War oil spill, reportedly the worst oil spill in the history and caused by deliberate actions of Iraqis, discharged nearly 1,500,000 of crude. The scale of these disasters is even difficult to conceive.

Lets take a closer look at the Exxon-Valdez, in order to better grasp the enormity of the disaster essentially caused by some silly negligence in navigation and for no other reason. On March 1989, the Exxon Valdez left the oil port at Valdez, Alaska, on its way to Long Beach, California. The ship struck the Bligh Reef within three hours of its departure. The vessel was carrying 54 million U.S. gallons of oil, out of which nearly 11 million gallons were spilled into the Prince William Sound, although this figure could be an underestimate. The cause of the accident has been ruled as human error.  The spill eventually (over a period of nearly two months) impacted an area of 1,300 square miles.

Clean up operations were immediately underway from the next morning itself, although not on a scale commensurate with the disaster in any way. To complicate the matters, a storm just three days after the disaster dispersed huge quantities of oil onto the rocky shores and beaches of neighboring islands. Exxon was widely criticized for its inadequate and tardy response to the situation, but extensive cleanup attempts were launched in the years following the incident, mainly during the first four years. Exxon spent 2 billion in the cleanup efforts. Thousands of volunteers and workers, over a thousand boats, over a hundred planes, a great number of Navy and Air Force resources figured into the cleanup operations (Cleveland). Regardless, a study made by NOAA in 2007 reported that more than 26,000 gallons of oil still remained seeped deep into the shoreline.

The impact of this incident on the environment was both short-term and long-term in nature. Beyond the thousands of animals and birds and billions of eggs which faced death and destruction very soon after the disaster, the suffering of the surviving marine creatures and their offspring (inhabiting the fringes of the spill or those that are otherwise indirectly affected through the food chain) continued for decades. There have been drastic reductions in marine animal populations, and stunted growth was seen in some species. Some species, such as killer whales, cormorants, and harbor seals, are considered to be not recovering at all, while other species such as sea otters and mussels are considered to be on the way to recovery. Only a very few species, such as bald eagles, are deemed to have recovered, while the status of some other species, mainly fish, is unknown.  It may take at least a decade or two yet for this expansive ocean habitat to recover to normalcy. Besides the wild life, the economies of Valdez, Cordova, Anchorage and other Alaskan towns and cities took a major blow from this accident. The industries that were directly hit were however compensated by Exxon. The litigation process over the punitive charges that had to be imposed on Exxon went on for decades, and in the end, by 2008, Exxon managed to reduce the original 5 billion plus interest charges to a mere 500 million.

Many bigger oil tanker disasters have happened both before and after the Exxon Valdez. But the Exxon Valdez is considered as one of the most catastrophic of human-caused environmental disasters of the 20th century, mainly because it occurred in one of the most pristine locations on the earth, a haven for wildlife and in fact a tourist attraction. Numerous lessons have been learnt from the disaster itself and the subsequent cleanup operations, and as a result some regulatory and operational changes have been implemented, such as the Oil Pollution Act of 1990. The Exxon Valdez incident itself and the attention it received have led to a heightening of safety concerns regarding oil supertankers and contributed to bringing down the likelihood of major oil tanker disasters in the oceans.

A very interesting fact about the Exxon Valdez is that if only the vessel had a double hull in the place of a single hull, the amount of oil that was discharged could have been cut down by 60. The cost of a double hull alone would amount to 50 of the entire single-hulled oil tanker, but notwithstanding its cost it could play a crucial role in mitigating the effects of an accident. To have a double hull for oil tankers would become mandatory from 2015 onward, and we can expect the number of oil supertanker disasters to further decline thereafter.

The Amoco Cadiz disaster on Frances Brittany coast happened over a decade before the Exxon-Valdez. It was one of the biggest ship-wrecks in history. The oil spilled from it, nearly 225,000 tons of crude oil (equivalent to 68 million gallons), affected 240 miles of French coast. The casualty figures 20,000 birds, 9,000 tons of oysters, millions of dead mollusks and sea urchins. This disaster for the first time presented TV audiences the sad plight of oil-coated birds and other marine creatures.

From the 1967 Torrey Canyon to 2007 Herbei Spirit which discharged 2.8 million gallons of crude oil very close to South Koreas west coast, oil tanker disasters have been ravaging the worlds oceans. There have been over 20 major disasters the world over in the span of 40 years. The ecological devastation they have been causing is enormous. The damage they inflict should be measured not only terms of figures and statistics, but also in terms of actual suffering they cause to innocent birds, animals and fishes. Most of the birds and animals exposed to oil spills do not die instantly but die prolonged deaths, experiencing great torment. As the oil penetrates the plumage of the birds, it leads to several consequences. The birds insulating ability is reduced making it vulnerable to hypothermia, the bird becomes less buoyant in the water, and significantly less capable of air flight. These two factors make it very difficult for the bird to find food and defend itself against predators.  Also, in the attempt to preen and clean themselves, the birds ingest oil toxic and carcinogenic compounds in the oil damage the birds internal organs and kill them slowly, subjecting them to various disabilities and illnesses. There is very little chance for the survival of the birds caught up in an oil spill. Marine mammals such as sea otters and seals suffer a similar fate as that of birds. Their lives become insupportable in the black world oozing thick oil from everywhere. Most of these birds and animals would die without the aid of human intervention, but even when these creatures are de-oiled with great effort and released into safer environments, usually very of them survive.

Fishes are also the victims. Heavier-than-water oil products as well as the heavier fraction of crude oils sink to the bottom of the ocean where they coat the fish populations. Vast stretches of phytoplankton and zooplankton would also be killed or rendered toxic. Whole ecological systems, with their complex web of food chains, would be severely taxed and disturbed.

Since oil floats on the surface, large discharges may cause long-term damage to the surface environment by destroying elements of the ocean food chain, especially plankton, fish, and birds. Living organisms coated with oil seldom survive. Oil is a continuing threat to a range of highly sensitive ocean environments, including coral reefs, coastal wetlands, and fish spawning areas.

Over the years, as the technology improved, the effectiveness of cleanup operations too has increased. Usually, an oil spill is treated in multiple ways. Dispersant particles gather clusters of oil globules around themselves and carry them away. These can be later scavenged more easily. Sorbents are used to absorb the oil. In the method called bioremediation, oil-eating bacteria and other microorganisms or biological agents are used to break down the oil. Besides these, a wide variety of manual and mechanical processes employing tools such as shovels, booms, and dredging equipment are put in place. Sometimes more sophisticated equipments such as high-speed oil containment systems are used. But no matter how intensive and extensive the cleanup efforts are and whatever technologies may be used, it is very difficult to reach a satisfactory degree of cleaning up in the context of such huge disasters the cleanup can only be considered as a damage control operation.

Oil tanker disasters in the ocean have caused and in the future are still likely to cause massive damage to ocean environments. However, they constitute only a part, and in fact the lesser part, of total oil contamination of the oceans. The majority of the oil pollution of the ocean waters happens deliberately, as when oil tankers are flushed with sea water. Done on a collective scale, such routine flushing of oil tankers discharges millions of gallons of oil into the ocean every year, but all of it goes unnoticed.  Crude oil and refined products spill also happens regularly from routine operations of offshore oil rigs, as well as leakage from undersea pipes.  These oil spills have enormous impact on the neighboring marine life. The Ocean continues to suffer.

Conclusion
The world has first encountered the heart-breaking images of teeming birds and animals submerged in a sea of oil over 30 years ago. That was also the time when the environmental movement had just begun to take off. Since then the sad sight of ocean devastation caused by oil tanker accidents has become almost commonplace. These images and the enormous figures of destruction associated with them naturally evoke horrified reactions from the common people. These disasters should not happen. Man has no right to inflict pain and death on such a huge scale on beautiful and innocent birds and animals. These disasters need not have happened too if not for the lack of resolve on the part of the people and authorities concerned. It can only be hoped that the past four decades of oil tanker disasters will remain an episode of dark legacy of the twentieth centurys hunger for oil, and in the decades to come we will go beyond our dependence on oil and the massive disasters associated with it.

Agriculture is one of the industries that have been greatly impacted by the trends in the prices and usage of fossil fuels. This is because in most countries agriculture encompasses high specialization, extensive farms which are heavily reliant on large inputs of pesticides oil based synthetic fertilizers, fossil fuels and chemicals. In the U.S. for instance, a fifth of the 10,551 quadrillion joules of fossil fuel energy used in total food production goes to agriculture (Soil Conservation Council of Canada, 2001 p. 17). In U.K., agriculture which is overly dependent on fossil fuel based energy and other inputs derived from fossil fuels contributes about 2 of the GDP and about 60 of the food consumed. However, recent trends with respect to fossil fuel energy such as the increase in prices oil past few decades have had a adverse effects on agricultural production in terms of cots and economic competitiveness in general. As a result, this has led to heavy losses on jobs and profits and an economic damage on the economies of many countries particularly those based on an agricultural economy. Increases in fossil fuel prices makes the situation worse given that agricultural production in most countries is heavily industrialized and dependent on fossil fuel based inputs. In the U.K, the agricultural sector is heavily mechanized and highly dependent on industrial chemical inputs.

Most of the negative financial implications of fossil fuels on agriculture are enhanced by a narrow and short-term focus on productivity and profits rather than sustainability. Costs implicated by intensive fossil fuels dependent agriculture are in most cases indirect. Modern industrial agricultural practices encompass the use of fossil fuels in running of the various machineries such as combine harvesters, production and transportation of fertilizers and pesticides and in the preservation and transport of food across the world. Extensive use of fossil fuels for these activities in the face of the increasing agricultural production across the world has led to enormous emissions of green house gases such as nitrous oxides, and carbon dioxide which are the major causes of global warming and ozone pollution. The implications of this environmental depletion in turn lead to high financial costs in agriculture due to changes in seasons, droughts, floods and destruction of the ecosystems. Agricultural production has since time immemorial been dependent on seasons and the natural ecology thus changes in these seasons and the natural ecosystem due to burning of fossil fuels in industrial agricultural production impacts negatively on agricultural productivity. This exacts high costs and losses on agriculture as extra inputs are required. Moreover, these irregular seasons demand that new strategies be implemented in agriculture as the current one ceases to be effective and hence high financial cost are becoming prevalent in agriculture.

Most of the fertilizers and chemical inputs that industrial agriculture depends on are produced in factories whereby fossil fuel based energy sources such as coal, oil and gasses are used. Forty percent of fossil energy used in agriculture goes to production of artificial pesticides and fertilizers. The Environmental Protection Agency indicates that as of 1992, U.S alone used about 1.1 billion pounds of active ingredients in terms of pesticides. Still in U.S fertilizer usage was about 23.7 million tons in 1981 though the figure reduced to 20.7 million tons in the year 1992. Grain production has tripled in the latter half of the past century-in year 2004 it reached 2,029 million tons up from 631 in 1950. Burning of these fossil fuels is known to produce carbon dioxide whose concentration in the atmosphere has been increasing over time. In year 1994, for instance, burning of fossil fuels in U.K is estimated have emitted about 36.6 of the total green house gasses emissions. Further, its noted that in the last ten years, the per annum growth rate of CO2 in the atmosphere has risen to 1.9ppm from 1.4ppm in the 1960s.  As a result, global warming has become prevalent in the world. The impacts of global warming have been felt in the agricultural sector more than in any other filed due to the need for costly inputs necessary to address the effects caused by global warming such irrigation systems due to problems such as droughts. For instance, crop diseases such as blight have been on the rise due to changing climatic conditions (19 USDOE, 2001p.11). Impacts such as the expansion of arid lands because of climate changes necessitate expensive investments in products such as fertilizers that improve these lands. Generally, fossil fuels have been continuously increasing the financial costs in agricultural production due the ever increasing fossil fuel based inputs into agricultural productivity yet the negative impacts of the same fossil fuels continue to reduce productivity making it impossible to cover the high financial cost of production (Union of Concerned Scientists, 2010 p. 11).

In modern agriculture, one of the greatest fears is about acid rain. This issue is even critical given the fact that increased industrial agriculture practices aimed at meeting the ever increasing need for food production. Fossil fuels also emit nitrogen oxide and sulfur oxide which are major elements causing acid rains (RSAS 1975 p. 13). Smog is also formed by the reaction of hydrocarbons from the activity of burning fossil fuels either in agricultural products transportation or in production machinery. Both smog and acid rain have detrimental effects on the agricultural productivity as they cause various complexities in crops such as diseases and retarded growth. This impacts high cost in agricultural production as productivity is low than the profits reaped form the sector. Acid rain also causes an imbalance in the natural conditions of the soil which is paramount for agricultural productivity. Apart from requiring inputs such as soil re-conditioners which are expensive, these soils contribute to changes in the natural ecosystems which become a financial burden in agriculture.

Studies conducted by the U.S Department of Energy indicate that the usage of fossil is expected to increase in this century yet the resource itself is an un-renewable one and it is running out so rapidly (Soil Conservation Council of Canada, 200137). With the agricultural sector being overly dependent on fossil fuels, it becomes very difficult and expensive to develop alternative systems that depend on other types of energy sources and which are renewable such as bio-fuels. Over dependence on fossil fuels in agricultural production has been very costly. Since a large percentage of modern agricultural production is based on oil, the issue of sustainability has impacted heavy costs on the agriculture over time. Fossil fuels are being used at a rate million times more than how they are formed. Decrease in these reserves has caused panic since oil prices have increased. Both population and the need for food production continue to increase while oil production is bound to drop.  This scenario is hence impacting high cost in modern industrial agricultural production in terms of chemical inputs such as expensive fertilizers, and other services that sustain the agricultural production as very minimal efficient alternatives exist.

Areas Where Fossil Fuels Are Used Most
There are various fields in which fossil fuel energy is applied in agriculture. The urge to produce surplus food to feed populations for a long period has relatively resulted into increased use of oil based machinery and equipments in preservation practices such as drying, smoking, storage and other methods. For instance, to dry one liter of moister from grains, an average of about 3,600 kcal of energy is required while making a 455g steel can demands about 1,006 kcal of energy. Currently agricultural produce is transported farther than ever. In the industrial nations of the west, agricultural food is transported for a distance of up to 2,500 to 4000 kilometers to the store from farms. Trucking and refrigerated transportation are by far more energy intensive. The amounts of agricultural produce transported rose by 16 while the covered distance increased by about 50 between 1999 and 1978.Farm machinery such as combine harvesters also consume large amounts of energy derived from fossil fuels since biofuels are bit expensive to produce. According to Leach (1976, p. 104), 21 of energy which is basically fossil fuel based is used in agricultural production while 14 goes to transportation. Statistics indicate that by 2004, U.K. was consuming about 74.13 of fossil fuel much of which was being used in industrial production of production of potatoes, cereals, oilseed, cereals, tobacco and production of farm inputs. Statics provided by Michigan universitys sustainable agriculture centre indicate that fossil fuel amounting to 7 calories is used to produce each calories in finished foods.            

Parkinsons disease is a disorder of the motor system that can significantly affect and decrease a persons quality of life.  Its symptoms are the trembling of hands, arms, legs or jaw rigidity of the limbs sudden slowness of movement and impaired balance and coordination while moving (Stewart A. Factor  William J. Weiner, 2008, p.47).

The primary cause for Parkinsons disease is the death or impairment of the neurons in the area of the brain known as the substantia nigra.  The neurons in this part of the brain produce a chemical known as dopamine which is responsible for transmitting signals from one part of the brain to the other.

Diagnosing Parkinsons disease is very difficult as there is no blood or laboratory tests that can help detect Parkinsons disease.  Moreover, despite the advances in medical technology, there is no known effective cure for Parkinsons disease.  None of the medications available can halt or retard the death of dopaminergic neuron.  The most that the current medications on Parkinsons disease can do is to treat its symptoms.

Some of the early-stage treatment for Parkinsons involve that treatment with monoamine oxidase-B (MAO-B) inhibitors, amantadine (Symmetrel) or anticholinergics help improve the mild symptoms.  However, these treatments do not slow down cell degeneration and they target only the symptoms.  Moreover, there is a high incidence of adverse affects in the gastro intestine which makes them harmful for use of older patients.

Levodopa is also used as treatment and considered as the most effective pharmacologic agent for Parkinsons disease and remains the primary treatment for symptomatic patients (Shobra Rao, Laura Hofmann and Amer Shakil, 2006, p. 1246).  However, the levodopa does not protect the cells against degeneration or slow it down.  Moreover, it was also found out that after five years of treatment with levodopa 40 of the patients develop motor fluctuations caused by the wearing-off of the effect of levodopa which results in the re-appearance of the symptoms (R. Talati, W. L. Baker, A. A. Patel, K. Reinhart,  C. I. Coleman, 2009, p.616).

The defect in the currently available treatment of Parkinsons disease is that they do not protect the cells or slow down its degeneration.  The treatments only target the diseases symptoms and they only offer end-of-the-pipe approach to Parkinsons disease which is not clinically effective. In contrast, scientists have long believed that the human body can protect itself against cell regeneration just like some of the animals.  For instance, Dr. Jeff S. Mumm, a biologist at the Medical College of Georgia, believes that humans may also have this ability.  He said that With the same general set of genetic tools, these animals can do something we cant regenerate lost cells and tissues. Our job is to figure out which tools in which combination or sequence afford fish this capacity, then apply this knowledge toward the creation of regenerative therapies for humans (Toni Baker, 2008, p.1).

The most recent research on the treatment of Parkinsons disease has been conducted by Ohta, Kuno, Inoue, Ikeda, Fujinami and Ohta (2010).  The research seeks to aid the current studies which are looking for ways on how to effectively treat people with Parkinsons disease.  They seek to find the right treatment by focusing on the substances that can protect the neurons and help in their survival and proper functioning.

According to their research, some dopamine agonists which were applied in cultured cells and animal models have an effect in protecting neurons against cell degeneration (Ohta et al, 2010, p.1).  The research also found that neurotrophic factors, such as the nerve growth factor (NGF) and the glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), play an important role in the nervous system since they help in slowing down or even preventing the death of the damaged neurons (Ohta et al, 2010, p.1).  They also play a critical role in the maintenance of neuronal function throughout the lifetime of the individual such as regulation of the growth of neurons, cell proliferation and survival.  For instance, GDNF affects motor neurons and selectively protects the nigrostrital dopaminergic pathway.  The protective effect of GDNF on motor neurons is several times greater than those of other known neurotrophic factors.  In rats and monkeys, for instance, GDNF protects dopaminergic neurons of the ventral mesencephalon from cell death.  Moreover, in an experiment involving monkeys, the administration of GDNF for four weeks helped improve dyskinesia, rigidity, and postural instability.  Because of the beneficial effects of the neurotrophic factors in protecting neurons its role in the treatment of Parkinsons disease is being studied further.  

Based on their latest research, dopamine agonists can be used to effectively stimulate neurotrophic factors in the brain (Ohta et al, 2010, p.2).  It must be stressed that the stimulation of the dopamine agonist is essential in the GDNF synthesis and secretion.  The research used the brains of 8-day-old ICR which were excised and cut into pieces for culturing.  The cultured astrocytes were then exposed to four kinds of medicines SKF-38393, apomorphine, bromocriptine, and ropinirole, which is a non-ergoline dopamine agonist, at various concentrations for 24 hour.   The secretion of neurotrophic factors in the cultured astrocytes was then measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).

After the secreted amounts of various neurotrophic factors were measured, it was found that the different medicines resulted in different levels of secretion of neurotrophic factors. Some resulted in maximum secretions while some resulted in minimal secretions.  After measuring the secreted amounts of neurotrophic factors for each of the four medicines, it was found that ropinirole induced the most secretion of neurotrophic factors.

This research establishes that Parkinsons disease is treatable.  With the use of ropinirole, Parkinsons disease may be treated by protecting the neurons against cell degeneration.  At the same time, it can also avoid the side effects commonly associated with the use of the current medications such as nausea and vomiting, drowsiness and sleepiness, dizziness or fainting, hallucinations and confusion.  In addition, ropinirole helps in the releasing neurotrophic factors which can improve the patients quality of life which is a not present in the medicines available today.

There are several microorganisms in the environments which have established their secure places their respective ecological niches as determined by evolutionary strategic fitnesses in the environment. They coexist among themselves as well with all other macroorganisms. Each organism whatever the size also demonstrates a genetically bestowed innate capacity to out-survive others in many relationships such as being obligate or facultative parasites (on any other organism of any group), commensals, symbionts and so on.

Among the many microorganisms, two fungal organisms of one each of beneficial and pathogenic groups are discussed for their similarities and differences. Beneficial organisms are the species of the genus Trichoderma viride. The harmful pathogenic organisms are several species belonging to Aspergillus such as A. flavus.

Similarities
Fungi of both the groups are micropscopic and grow to a cottony off white irregular mass (some inches longwode) consisting of many microscopically visible numerous intertwined filamentous structures called (2-10 microns in diameter) hyphaemycelia.  These are septate (compartmented) with clear partitions between segments, or coenocytic (multinucleate, mostly with no compartments), and also hollowempty showing freely randomly distributed nuclei in the cytoplasm generally at the growing apices of these hyphae. They all contain all the usual subcellular organelles necessary for the other metabolic phenomena such as synthesis of proteins, cell wall material, and respiration. Generally they are aerobic.

They are all heterotrophic because they lack chlorophyll may live in dry or moist soil, decaying organic matter or on other organisms such as barks, stems, roots, leaves or of trees.  The fungi are widely distributed in all the kinds of environments. They produce numerous spores asexually or sexually fertilized zygote which are dispersed in air, or by sticking to surfaces of motile other organisms.

They are generally recognized by staining with dyes for coloring the hyphae which are a product of general or specific for each organism specific metabolism

Differences
Species of Trichoderma produce enzymes called chitinases or cellulases which Therefore they are very useful as antagonistic microorganisms or even to produces these enzymes under controlled in vitro conditions.

The pathogenic species of aspergillus  Aspergillus such as A. flavus survives by colonizing on many nutritionally important fruits and seeds such peanuts and many other species during maturity and post harvest storage.. It sucks nutrients and carbohydrates from the seedsfruits thus depriving the seeds and fruits developing into mature useful seeds. They are thus big loss to farmers.

Aspergillus flavus is notorious for promoting the production of a deadly carcinogenic toxin in the seeds called the aflatoxins. Even at low concentrations such parts per billion can be very potentially carcinogenic. Peanuts are used for consumptions in various ways and also as oils and butter for confectionary purposes. The persons consuming any of these infected products are high dangers of developing many kinds of cancers which are still not curable. There is a strict ban on importing and exporting seeds of these crops.

Parkinsons disease is a disorder of the motor system that can significantly affect and decrease a persons quality of life.  Its symptoms are the trembling of hands, arms, legs or jaw rigidity of the limbs sudden slowness of movement and impaired balance and coordination while moving (Stewart A. Factor  William J. Weiner, 2008, p.47).

The primary cause for Parkinsons disease is the death or impairment of the neurons in the area of the brain known as the substantia nigra.  The neurons in this part of the brain produce a chemical known as dopamine which is responsible for transmitting signals from one part of the brain to the other.

Diagnosing Parkinsons disease is very difficult as there is no blood or laboratory tests that can help detect Parkinsons disease.  Moreover, despite the advances in medical technology, there is no known effective cure for Parkinsons disease.  None of the medications available can halt or retard the death of dopaminergic neuron.  The most that the current medications on Parkinsons disease can do is to treat its symptoms.

Some of the early-stage treatment for Parkinsons involve that treatment with monoamine oxidase-B (MAO-B) inhibitors, amantadine (Symmetrel) or anticholinergics help improve the mild symptoms.  However, these treatments do not slow down cell degeneration and they target only the symptoms.  Moreover, there is a high incidence of adverse affects in the gastro intestine which makes them harmful for use of older patients.

Levodopa is also used as treatment and considered as the most effective pharmacologic agent for Parkinsons disease and remains the primary treatment for symptomatic patients (Shobra Rao, Laura Hofmann and Amer Shakil, 2006, p. 1246).  However, the levodopa does not protect the cells against degeneration or slow it down.  Moreover, it was also found out that after five years of treatment with levodopa 40 of the patients develop motor fluctuations caused by the wearing-off of the effect of levodopa which results in the re-appearance of the symptoms (R. Talati, W. L. Baker, A. A. Patel, K. Reinhart,  C. I. Coleman, 2009, p.616).

The defect in the currently available treatment of Parkinsons disease is that they do not protect the cells or slow down its degeneration.  The treatments only target the diseases symptoms and they only offer end-of-the-pipe approach to Parkinsons disease which is not clinically effective. In contrast, scientists have long believed that the human body can protect itself against cell regeneration just like some of the animals.  For instance, Dr. Jeff S. Mumm, a biologist at the Medical College of Georgia, believes that humans may also have this ability.  He said that With the same general set of genetic tools, these animals can do something we cant regenerate lost cells and tissues. Our job is to figure out which tools in which combination or sequence afford fish this capacity, then apply this knowledge toward the creation of regenerative therapies for humans (Toni Baker, 2008, p.1).

The most recent research on the treatment of Parkinsons disease has been conducted by Ohta, Kuno, Inoue, Ikeda, Fujinami and Ohta (2010).  The research seeks to aid the current studies which are looking for ways on how to effectively treat people with Parkinsons disease.  They seek to find the right treatment by focusing on the substances that can protect the neurons and help in their survival and proper functioning.

According to their research, some dopamine agonists which were applied in cultured cells and animal models have an effect in protecting neurons against cell degeneration (Ohta et al, 2010, p.1).  The research also found that neurotrophic factors, such as the nerve growth factor (NGF) and the glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), play an important role in the nervous system since they help in slowing down or even preventing the death of the damaged neurons (Ohta et al, 2010, p.1).  They also play a critical role in the maintenance of neuronal function throughout the lifetime of the individual such as regulation of the growth of neurons, cell proliferation and survival.  For instance, GDNF affects motor neurons and selectively protects the nigrostrital dopaminergic pathway.  The protective effect of GDNF on motor neurons is several times greater than those of other known neurotrophic factors.  In rats and monkeys, for instance, GDNF protects dopaminergic neurons of the ventral mesencephalon from cell death.  Moreover, in an experiment involving monkeys, the administration of GDNF for four weeks helped improve dyskinesia, rigidity, and postural instability.  Because of the beneficial effects of the neurotrophic factors in protecting neurons its role in the treatment of Parkinsons disease is being studied further.  

Based on their latest research, dopamine agonists can be used to effectively stimulate neurotrophic factors in the brain (Ohta et al, 2010, p.2).  It must be stressed that the stimulation of the dopamine agonist is essential in the GDNF synthesis and secretion.  The research used the brains of 8-day-old ICR which were excised and cut into pieces for culturing.  The cultured astrocytes were then exposed to four kinds of medicines SKF-38393, apomorphine, bromocriptine, and ropinirole, which is a non-ergoline dopamine agonist, at various concentrations for 24 hour.   The secretion of neurotrophic factors in the cultured astrocytes was then measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).

After the secreted amounts of various neurotrophic factors were measured, it was found that the different medicines resulted in different levels of secretion of neurotrophic factors. Some resulted in maximum secretions while some resulted in minimal secretions.  After measuring the secreted amounts of neurotrophic factors for each of the four medicines, it was found that ropinirole induced the most secretion of neurotrophic factors.

This research establishes that Parkinsons disease is treatable.  With the use of ropinirole, Parkinsons disease may be treated by protecting the neurons against cell degeneration.  At the same time, it can also avoid the side effects commonly associated with the use of the current medications such as nausea and vomiting, drowsiness and sleepiness, dizziness or fainting, hallucinations and confusion.  In addition, ropinirole helps in the releasing neurotrophic factors which can improve the patients quality of life which is a not present in the medicines available today.