Snow and Farr Finding the Cause of Cholera

John Snow felt that Cholera was caused by polluted water in which water supplies were contaminated with feces.  In supporting his hypothesis, he opted to conduct his research by the application of logical reasoning.  He was not skilled in the art of scientific matters of a preliminary basis.  However, his conductive reasoning was logical in following a pattern of evidence that proposed to him the findings leading to the cause of Cholera, and its subsequent spread to such a vast percentage of the population.

In his testing of the water from the two companies who provided the water supply, his use of silver nitrate to test levels of salt found in water was ingenious.  It confirmed his suspicions there was something in the water that caused Cholera.  The other portion of his research was performed on the symptoms of those with Cholera and with the remains of those who had succumbed to the disease.  For those living he investigated the physical symptoms that were suffered.  Main symptoms included abdominal pain with gastrointestinal ailments.  Snows thoughts were that the first symptoms of Cholera began with abdominal discomfort.  He thought it to be caused by a morbid material or poison, which acted locally as an irritant on the surface of the stomach (Eyler, 2001).  He felt that this irritant continued in its aggravation affecting the intestines, resulting in vomiting, diarrhea, and dehydration (Eyler, 2001).
 
Snow was not well versed in epidemiology.  He therefore enlisted the assistance of Farr.  Farr had performed ingenious research on stratagems in accordance with the Cholera outbreak and in supporting his work he documented all confirmed avenues, even creating a law of averages.  This law of averages was a mathematical wonder at depicting percentiles of households that would be affected and the deaths that would ensue in relation to contracting Cholera (Morabia, 2001).

The scientific method that Snow used was to provide a navigational road map in relation to water supplies in and around towns.  He documented regions of locale in which persons were exposed to or dying from Cholera and he earmarked their water source (Eyler, 2001).  This may have seemed a rudimentary design of science for those times.  But it is much like the process Police use when strategically pinpointing suspects per serial killings, to originate the source (or killer in this case).

Morabia (2001) tells us that William Farr (18071883). As Superintendent of the
General Register Office, Englands center for vital statistics was monumental in finding the cause for Cholera.  His sophisticated system involving the collection, classification, analysis, and report on causes of death.  Farr compiled a 300 page report on the 1848-49 Cholera outbreak, tracing the cholera epidemic over time and space and investigated the roles of sex, age, seasons, day of the week and soil elevation (Morabia, 2001).

Farr performed what is known today as surveillance of disease.  This was due to the law of mathematics that could predict the human mortality rate according to soil elevation (Morabia, 2001).  In his surveillance, he was incorrect in his first theory that the disease was caused by fermentation.  Farrs surveillance provided the proof in supporting Snows theory of contaminated water consumption.   The elaborate array of facts which Dr Farr has set forth with so much skill, as the result of great labor and research, will render irresistible the conclusions at which he has arrived in regard to the influence of the water supply in the causation of the epidemic (Morabia, 2001).

Farr contributed the spread of Cholera to the entrance of Zymotic materials entering the body through the lungs.  He stood by this theory in addition to Snows theory of the consumption of contaminated water.  Snow would not have been able to prove his theory on ideas alone, and without Farrs surveillance system, Snows theory would not have been accepted.  Working together yet apart, the works of Snow and Farr resulted in the discovery of the causes of Cholera.  It was deemed that Cholera was transmitted in four ways, that of personal contact, by air, by sewer vapor, and by water (Eyler, 2001).

Snow provided the correct hypothesis yet was unable to prove his theory.  Snow was lacking in appropriate documentation in the overall aspects of all conditions concerned, as his focus was primarily on investigating the routes of the contaminated water supplies.  Although his hypothesis was correct, he had no way of supporting his findings.  Farr was working just as hard as Snow on his own theory of Zymotic conditions, which was not the cause of Cholera, but was a source of exposure.  It turns out that Farrs research and documentation proved invaluable to Snows work.  Working adjacent to each other, they shared their ideas and in a cumulative effort, the cause of Cholera was found.

While Farr did not have a problem in accepting Snows theory of the consumption of contaminated water supplies, Snow acclaimed that Farrs research was simply coincidental by all accounts.  The realization of the importance of Farrs work was overshadowed as Snows theory was accepted when presented with the supporting factors of Farrs work.

This oversight was corrected through time and now Farrs work is recognized as being ingenious in creating a surveillance system of monumental capacity as far as science goes.  This system is the best in existence today.  It has assisted scientists in the continued fight against disease.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)

NMR is a technique vastly used for studying biological molecules, crystalline structures,
molecular physics and non-crystalline structures. It is based on the fact that all nuclei that have odd number of protons have a magnetic field  and electromagnetic pulse or pulses. Nuclei absorb energy from these electromagnetic pulses and then rediate it back in the form of resonance frequency. The strength of resonance frequency is directly proportional to the strength of applied electromagnetic pulses. So, this allows scientists to exploit this property of magnetic nuclei to suty quantum mechanical magnetic properties of an atomic nucleus. NMR spectrometry is also used in advanced medical imaging techniques such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).

The principle of NMR usually involves two sequential steps
The alignment (polarization) of the magnetic nuclear spins in an applied, constant  magnetic
fieldH0.

The perturbation of this alignment of the nuclear spins by employing an electro-magnetic,
usually radio frequency (RF) pulse. The required perturbing frequency is dependent upon
the static magnetic field (H0) and the nuclei of observation.

Both the fields are set perpendicular to each other to give a better NMR signal. Both
use intense magnetic fields to deliver better quality spectra result of which is
detailed in zeeman effect, chemical shifts and knight shifts (in metals).

Analytical Utracentrifuge
Analytical Ulracentrifuge is widely used in studying molecular biology, proteins and long
polymers since long. A sample is taken in an Ultracentrifuge and accelerated to a very high speed of about 3600 kms2. The sample is spun with such a high acceleration and optical detectors are used to examine the sample using ultraviolet absorption or interference optical refractive index sensitive system. The sample is monitored in real time by using the above two methods. Two types of experiments are usually performed on these instruments

Sedimentaion velocity Experiments

Sedimentaion equilibrium Experiments
Sedimentation velocity experiments are concerned the concentration distribution to find the molar mass and size of the dissolved biological macromolecules. The size resolution for this method is the square of the radii of the particle being examined,or it can be adjusted by rotor speed of experiment.

Sedimentation equilibrium Experiments are performed without having regard to concentration
ditribution of the particle dissolved but are, rather concerned with the final  steady-state of
experiment, where sedimentation is balanced by diffusing opposed to concentration gradient in
sedimentation velocity experiments.

Basic Electron Microsopy
Electron microscopy is the most powerful device for examining cellular objects, biological
molecules and other small objects that are not easily imageable using optical microscopy. In this
case, a high beam of charged electron is projected on a specimen to illuminate and find its image to a very high resolution ever possible by 1,000,000X whereas optical microsopy is only able to 1,000X. It is because of the fact that electrons ar too small as compared to photons that are used in optical microscopy.
Cyro-Electrom microscopy

Cyro-Electrom microscopy is a type of electron microscopy but in cyrogenic
temperatures,usually in liquid nitrogen temperatures. Cyro-Electrom microscopy is helpful in
studying proteins and other biochemical processes in its actual physiological environment unlike X-rat crystallography which have a retrospective impact on the sample studied because of the
articficially created environment.. Thats why cyro-Electrom microscopy is more valuable than
other technigues.

Negative Staining
Negative staining is an established method especially in diagnostic microscopy where there
is a thin specimen to be contradted with an optically opaque fluid. A negative staining technique
uses an ink to be sprinked over the sample like nigrosin and then to dry the sample,after which it is undergone an electromicroscopic treatment. The target material in the sample is seen light in contrast to the dark background.

Single Particle Analysis
Single particle analysis and electron tomography are the tools used in the structural biological analysis of proteins and other organic macromolecules. Single particle analysis in
transmission electron microscopy examines macromolecules and large proteins as opposed to
electron tomography which observes the sub-cellular portions of the organism. Electron
tomography when used as a single particle anaysis will bridge the gap between optical analysis andelectron microscopic analysis of macromelecules and other sub-cellular organelles.

Mass Spectrometry
Mass spectrometry is an analytical techniques used in the determination of biological
molecules structures and the elemental composition of organic biological moecules such as protein  etc. It employs the method of ionizing the sample and then passing it through an electric field. The charged ionized particles are deflected in the electric field based on their mass to charge ratio.

Newton second law of motion is applied in the deflection movement phenomenon.

Circular Dichroism
CD spectroscopy is relatively new technique which is based on the difference in the
absorption of left and right circularly polarized light. The phenomenon is seen in the absorption
bonds of optically chiral molecules.It has wide range of applications including structural analysis
of biological molecules etc.

SDS-PAGE
Sodium dodecyle sulphate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis is a technique widely used in
biological forensics,protein isolation based on protein electrophoretic mobility. Electrophoretic
mobility is a function of length of polypeptide or weight of polyprotein.

Conclusion
In a nutshell, there are growing numbers of techniques in use today by reseachers and
biologists to delve deep into the protein structure and function to get fully acquainted with the life
most important constituent, the Protein. Research is currently under process to know more about the protolytic enzyme that cause Hapatitus C Virus using multiple methodologies. Although we were not able to mention the full set of techniques used in proteinology, but we did make an excellent effort to describe the overall structural based and non structural based techniques to a great deal. Yet  more and more techniques are being discovered to cover the subject of protein studies in great detail. We wish good luck to all the researchers in this field.

Growth, Flowering and Physiological Characteristics of Phalaenopsis affected by Nutritional and Environmental Factors

Phalaenopsis has established itself as the most valuable potted plants (18 million pots in sold in 2003, compared to mere 50,000 plants in 1983 in Dutch flower auctions Lopez and Runkle, 2005). In the USA Phalaenopsis alone tops with 70 - 90 of the entire Orchid group (Griesbach, 2002 Nash, 2003). Aesthetic beauty appeal, possibly olfactory attractions and the distinctly unique shelf life of these flowers even for as much as 4 long months and in a very wide spectrum of floral colors and color combinations are some of the suggested reasons. Increasing trends of Phalaenopsis domination is likely to be sustained in future if not going down.

Many market oriented breedersresearches have examined several external and recently even internal genetic factors for maximizing the flower production in Phalaenopsis in faster times because orchids in general require 4-6 years of juvenile phase from the seed stage to the stage of maturity to flower (Goh and Arditti, 2005), but most commercial orchids take only about 2-3 years probably because they are mostly tissue culture propagated. Environmental and nutrient factors then become critical for induction of flowering and therefore appropriate conditions have to be provided. This paper examines these issues.

In general there is an ongoing discussion regarding the best relative proportions of vegetative growth in relation to maximum flowering responses particularly in floriculture crops. There is a consensus that plant has to be culture in the best environment with most effective nutrient supply for the best consequences flowering. With over about 50 or so species in the genus Phalaenopsis (Pridgeon, 2000 cited by Lopez and Runkle, 2005)  and the ease of creating new hybrids coupled with ultra-rapid large scale in vitro micropropagation of  the selected hybrids provide a comfortable situation for rearing of plants. But the species diversity in floral characters such as the color combination cut flower shelf life, length of the spike itself and also more importantly the environmental and nutrient factors required for good vegetative growth just adequate for best flowering responses are quite variable. These and their combinations prevent any generalized scheme of adjusting these for maximum benefits. Further, results so far do not provide a comprehensive information on the interactions of the two broad factors and majority of studies have been confined only either to vegetative (juvenile) stage specific to different popular genera or hybrids, or to early and pre-flowering phase of this genus.

CAM in Phalaenopsis
Phalaenopsis is an epiphytic orchid characterized by Crassulacean Acid Metabolism. After the first comprehensive review on Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM) was published by Wolf in 1960), many extensive researches have been carried out and reviewed periodically (Lttge, 2004). But in most of these orchids in general and Phalaenopsis in particular have been generally ignored. Lttge (2004) describes CAM as given by Osmond (1978) characterized by nocturnal uptake of CO2 via open stomata, fixation by phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPC) and vacuolar storage of CO2 in the form of organic acids, mainly malic acid (phase I  HYPERLINK httpaob.oxfordjournals.orgcgicontentfull936629 l MCH087C205 Osmond, 1978), and (2) daytime remobilization of vacuolar organic acids, decarboxylation and refixation plus assimilation of CO2 behind closed stomata in the Calvin-cycle (phase III) .

Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM) is an ecophysiological modification of photosynthetic carbon acquisition as a deviation from the well known C3 and C4 Plants. In all of these types carbon fixation pathways, six major environmental parameters CO2, H2O, light, temperature, nutrients and salinity participate in a coordinated manner at the whole plant level and also as affected by some or all these parameters. Each of these is significant in their different qualitative forms such as diurnal variations in temperature, light duration, quality and radiance and so on. 57 of all epiphytes are CAM plants.

Water use efficiency (WUE) might be the major ecophysiological property of CAM. CAM is a CO2-concentrating mechanism for adaptation to water stress because stomatal water loss through open stomata during dark is reduced by CO2 mobilization fixation (Luttge, 2004). In a CAM plant water is the most important factor as an adaptation to water-stress. Epiphytic species are especially more sensitive water stresses, in addition to particular problems of other types of plants. In a CAM plant water is the most important factor as an adaptation to water- stress because moisture loss through leaf stomata is reduced by CO2 absorption during dark via open stomata and subsequent fixation when stomata close during day time.

That Phalaenopsis is an obligate type of CAM plant is strengthened further by the experiments of Chen et al. (2008). They showed that the two groups of mature Phalaenopsis aphrodite subsp. formosana plants showed a clear diurnal oscillation of stomatal conductance, net CO2 uptake rate, malate and starch levels, and the phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase and NAD-malic enzyme activities.

Growth and flowering have been generally excluded from each other. A discussion of environmental factors has to consider various parameters necessary for both roots zone and shoot region. Humidity and moisture, temperatures during days and night and their relations, photoperiod lengths, light intensity and quality are the major factors for both the roots and also the leaves and shoots.  

Root Zone, Potting Media, Water levels and Electrical Conductivity
Moisture in the root zone is particularly important. Humidity in the shoot zone is to be maintained around 60 - 70 and has to be critically monitored especially because Phalaenopsis is a monopodial kind of orchid. It may suffice to mention here that Wang et al. (2007) stress that inducing Phalaenopsis into flowering become easy if a good and a healthy root system is ensured. They suggest an ideal composition of a useful medium and efficient watering and fertilizer management in the early stages. Watering is crucial as Phalaenopsis is succulent unlike others which have pseudo-bulbs such as Cattleyas. Watering should be done more carefully in Phalaenopsis because of its succulent leaves. Roots should be allowed to nearly dry before rewatering can be started But can tolerate water deficiency for long periods but not more than two weeks. Also, in prolonged water deficient situation leaf photosynthetic carbon dioxide fixation goes down gradually. Long roots with light greenish tips indicate active plants.  

In the early studies such as by Sheehan (1960) examined two potting media, a specialty of orchids. This was among the first few papers which emphasized the need for well designed experiments to produce consistent results rather than just report only observations. These results also point out the importance of two commercial bark samples used due to their structure and differentially abilities to hold or release moisture and nutrients for availability to the roots.

Doritaenopsis cv. Labios and White Castle were grown with three different growing media Perlite, perlite  coir dust (31 vv) and perlite  rockwool granule (31 vv). Regardless of cultivars, plant growth on perlite  rockwool granule (31) was greatest. Perlite  rockwool granules had the best combinations of key physical characteristics such as total porosity and bulk density in addition to desirable combinations of high moisture capacity and container capacity with good air space, and electrical conductivity (Table 1). This was further proven by growing the Phalaenopsis plantlets (Table 2). Leaf pigments, chlorophylls and carotenoids were maximum on sphagnum moss followed by peat moss  perlite. Phalaenopsis plants were grown on this potting medium with three levels of media moisture content (50, 70 and 90 maximum water holding capacity) were examined. Nutrient solution with EC 1.0 dSm-1 was supplied during the culture. Plants grown at 90 showed highest growth rate but N, P, K, Ca and Mg contents in leaves and roots were fluctuating indicating that the growth rate was not related to these.

Table 1 Physical and chemical characteristics of growing media used in the experiment
         
Parameter      
MediaPerlitePerlite  coir dust Perlite  Rockwool granules (31, vv)
Total porosityz70.675.278.6
Container capacity y35.348.245.0
Air space ()35.227.032.6
Moisture capacity64.473.369.2
Bulk density (g.ml -10.180.180.16EC (dS.m-10.050.120.08Ph7.785.248.87z  
Percentage volume in container
y Predicted percentage volume at drainage

Table 2 Effect of growing medium on chlorophyll content in leaves of Doritaenopsis Tinny Tender after nine months of culture

Growing
mediumChlorophyll content (g. g -1FW)Chlorophyll abCarotenoids (g. g -1FW)   a     b A  bCoconut chips260.8 bz89.4 b350.2 b2.9 a85.7 bBark273.8 ab98.2 b372.0 ab2.8 b96.9 abPeat moss  perlite286.3 ab103.6 b389.9 ab 2.7 b93.3 abSphagnum moss297.5 a125.6 a423.1 a2.4 c101.9 az Mean separation within columns by Duncans multiple range test,   0.05

When EC of the nutrient solution maintained at 0.8 dSm-1, this potting medium resulted in the highest growth with higher number of roots than others. N, P, K, Ca and Mg contents in leaves and roots were also higher in plants grown on perlite  rockwool granule (31) than in perlite and perlite  coir dust (31).

Among four different growing media coconut husk, bark, peat moss-perlite (11) and sphagnum moss, fresh and dry weights of the White - flowered Doritaenopsis Tinny Tender plants grown in peat moss  perlite (11) mix and sphagnum moss were more than those in bark and coconut chip media. The same media resulted in better leaf growth, chlorophyll content, and N and P levels.  These media however showed lower Ca and Mg contents than in bark and coconut chips. The same two media also resulted in more flowers per plant, longer inflorescences, higher number of flowers per inflorescence, larger diameter of flowers.  Inflorescence emergence was unaffected by growing medium. Similar results were observed in another cv Labios

Doritaenopsis plants planted in culture bed filled with perlite  rock wool granule (31, vv) mix and 4 EC levels of nutrient solution were supplied. The nutrient solution for the experiment was developed by Chungbuk National University (CBNU-Phl2). At an early stage, in both cultivars, leaf growth increased with increasing EC level, of the nutrient solution, while root growth decreased with increasing EC levels. At the end of the experiment, plants grown on EC 2.0 dSm-1 showed lowest growth rate, while EC 0.8 dSm-1 resulted in the greatest plant growth. N, P, K and Mg contents in leaves increased with increasing levels of the nutrient solution but Ca contents decreased. During the first flowering season, in both cultivars, EC 1.6 dSm-1 induced larger number and size of flowers and longer stalks compared to other EC levels. Flowering was delayed by increasing EC level. During the second and third flowering season, higher flower quality was obtained at EC 0.8 dSm-1 in both cultivars. Doritaenopsis cv. Labios and White Castle were grown with three different growing media Perlite, perlite  coir dust (31 vv) and perlite  rockwool granule (31 vv). Regardless of cultivars, plant growth in perlite  rockwool granule (31) was greatest. EC of the nutrient solution maintained at 0.8 dSm-1 resulted in the highest growth with higher number of roots than others. N, P, K, Ca and Mg contents in leaves and roots were also higher in perlite  rock wool granule (31) than in perlite and perlite  coir dust (31).

Inflorescence length, number of flowers per inflorescence and flower size were greatest in perlite  rockwool granule (31) medium but inflorescence emergence was unaffected by the growing media.

Phalaenopsis plants were grown in perlite  rockwool granule (31 vv) and three levels of media moisture content (50, 70 and 90 maximum water holding capacity) were examined. Nutrient solution with EC 1.0 dSm-1 was supplied during the culture. Plants grown at 90 showed highest growth rate. On the other hand, N, P, K, Ca and Mg contents in leaves and roots were not related to the growth rate, showing fluctuations in each element. The relative water content (RWC) increased with increasing media moisture content. Chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and total chlorophyll content (fresh weight mgg) were highest at 90 media moisture content. Net CO2 uptake, stomatal conductance and transpiration in leaves during dark period increased progressively with increasing media moisture content, which became more significant with the duration of experimental period.

Effects of Environmental Factors and Composition of Nutrient Solution

Drought
Five-month-old in vitro cultured Doritaenopsis orchids transplanted and maintained under ex vitro condition in a greenhouse for 8 months were supplied with four nutrient solutions (at 12S, 1S, 32S and 2S with electrical conductivities of 0.9, 1.4, 1.9 and 2.4 dSm1, respectively) in ebb and flood irrigation system. Drought was imposed by withholding the supply of nutrient solution. These plants were analyzed for photosynthesis, stomatal conductance, transpiration, reducing sugar, total sugar, starch, protein, phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase, superoxide dismutase, and peroxidase activity

Under light and dark condition photosynthesis, stomatal conductance and transpiration decreased with increasing the duration of drought. With the imposition of drought reducing sugar content increased while total sugar and starch content decreased. Protein content increased at 12S nutrient solution while decreased maximally at 32S. Drought also caused increase in phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase and peroxidase activities but reduced superoxide dismutase activity.  Rewatering after 15 days of drought resulted in sudden revival from the stress related effects.

The relative water content (RWC) increased with increasing media moisture content. Chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and total chlorophyll content (fresh weight mgg) were highest at 90 media moisture content. Net CO2 uptake, stomatal conductance and transpiration in leaves during dark period increased progressively with increasing media moisture content, which became more significant with the duration of experimental period. On perlite  rockwool (31) medium, while spike emergence was unaffected, inflorescence length, number of flowers per inflorescence and flower size were greatest.

Doritaenopsis plants planted in culture bed filled with perlite  rockwool granule (31, vv) mix were fed with 4 EC levels of nutrient solution supplied for the experiment and developed by Chungbuk National University (CBNU-Phl2). At an early stage, in both cultivars, leaf growth increased with increasing EC level, of the nutrient solution, while root growth decreased with increasing EC levels.

Pre-flowering Vegetative Stem Growth
The vigor of a plant is generally reflected in its response in flowering. The vigor of a plant is generally reflected in its response in flowering. Cool night temperatures promote spike formation (Chen et al., 2008). Under constant prolonged duration of a high day and night temperature of 280C failed to induceproduce the flowering spikes but cooler temperature for at least 12 hoursday for about 6-8 weeks promoted inflorescence development in P. amabilis. This confirms Wents earlier report of observing more flower formation during cooler (20 C) at short day than at long day photo-periods. Similar observations were reported by Yoneda et al. (1991). Conversely, a diurnal fluctuation of high day and low night temperature promoted spike induction of Phalaenopsis (Lee and Lin 1984). Going by analogy provided by Sudoi and Tsutsui (1978), during night carbon dioxide fixation is more and reduces with the onset of the sunrise. In these reports, cooler temperature also stimulates flower initiation at cooler temperatures. Therefore if cooler temperatures promote greater Carbon fixation during it is very likely the spike initiation is the result of this greater carbon fixation. Sakanishi et al (1980) suggest that short day conditions may supplement to the positive lower temperature effects on spike formation and flower formation.  

Effects of Environmental factors on Physiological Characteristics of Doritaenopsis
Development of photosynthetic properties are very important for in vitro plantlets, which could be improved by altering their environmental growth conditions, such as increasing light intensity, humidity, air temperature or CO2 concentration. Humidity and temperature are crucial not only for ex vitro acclimatization of plantlets but also for a very rapid development of all normal physiological functions in a high value ornamental crop such as Phalaenopsis.

In vitro propagated Doritaenopsis New Candy plantlets acclimatized for one month. They were treated with three humidity levels (50, 70 and 90 251 C, at 12 h12 h photoperiod was used under fluorescent light (10010_molm2 s1 PPFD). In another experiment plantlets were maintained at five different temperatures 201, 251, 351 and 351 C, under 10010_molm2 s1 (PPFD). They were analyzed for different physiological characteristics including CO2 assimilation (An), stomatal conductance (Sc), transpiration rate (Tr), chlorophyll content, fresh and dry weight, leaf length, leaf area, leaf width, formation of new roots and survival rate.

Increasing humidity promoted plantlet growth as observed in fresh and dry weights, leaf dimensions, and survival rates but the number of new roots was not different. At 90 humidity fresh weight increased about 30 compared to 50 humidity.

RWC was reduced significantly after second day of transfer from in vitro to the growth chamber at 50 and 70 humidity compared to 90 humidity but as the acclimatization day progressed, RWC was completely recovered at the end of acclimatization period under all humidity stress.

Table 7 Leaf width, leaf length, leaf area of leaves, number of new roots, fresh weight, dry weight and survival rate of Doritaenopsis as affected by relative humidity (RH) and air Temperature after 30 days of acclimatizationx
RHair temperatureFresh weight (g)Dry weight (g)LeafNumber of new rootSurvival rate ()
Width (cm)Length (cm)Area (cm2Humidity506.63 b0.46 c4.0 a7.4 b9.17 b2.3 a62.2 b706.32 b0.51 b4.0 a7.7 b9.49 b2.3 a66.7 b909.46 a0.69 a4.3 a11.7 a11.17 a2.6 a92.2 aTemperature15 C    4.19 c0.30 c3.2 b6.0 b9.2 b1.0 b84.4 b
20 C7.48 ab0.54 a4.5 a6.6 a11.6 a2.3 ab91.1 a
25 C8.32 a0.59 a4.9 a6.9 a12.6 a3.0 a93.3 a
30 C6.42 b0.43 b5.1 a6.7 a12.7 a2.7 a92.2 a
35 C5.07 c0.36 c4.9 a6.6 a12.2 a2.8 a90.0 a

Mean separations within columns by different letters are significantly different according to Duncan s multiple range tests at 5 level x From Jeon et al., 2006

At 15 and 35 C, fresh weight decreased about 50 and 40, respectively compared to 25 C. Shoot dry weight decreased at both the low temperatures (at and below 20 C) and high temperature (35 C ) compared to 25 C. At low temperature (15 C), leaf area reduced more than 27 while it was less affected at high temperature (35 C) compared to 25 C grown plantlets (Table 7).

While at higher humidity (90), about 11 more new root was formed at 90 humidity compared to 50 humidity, higher temperature (25 C and above) promoted more root formation than at lower temperature (15 C).

In contrast, in temperature treated plantlets, dehydration became more serious at 15 C and RWC decreased after second day of transfer from in vitro to the growth chamber significantly and could not recover at the end of acclimatization period compared to other temperature (Fig. 2B). The dehydration was indicated by decrease of RWC.

Photosynthetic efficiency
During acclimatization on the second day itself, 50 and 70 humidity and low (15 C) and high temperature (30 and 35 C) FvFm was inhibited but recovered completely under all humidity at the end of acclimatization period (Fig. 3A). Similarly, at 15 C, FvFm decreased significantly and did not recover completely compared to 25 and 30 C grown plantlets.

Pigment content
Chlorophyll content was reduced at both low and high temperature compared to 25 C grown plantlets. About 12 chlorophyll a, 9 chlorophyll b and 12 total chlorophyll contents were decreased at 50 humidity compared to 90 humidity. At low temperature, 12 chlorophyll a, 17 chlorophyll b and 14 total chlorophyll and at high temperature 13 chlorophyll a, 11 chlorophyll b and 11 total chlorophyll were reduced compared to 25 C. The chlorophyll ab ratio was neither affected by humidity nor by temperature stress Jeon et al., 2006).

CO2 assimilation (An), stomatal conductance (Sc) and transpiration rate (Tr)
 
Under all humidity and temperatures conditions Doritaenopsis showed a typical CAM pattern of gas exchange. Both temperature and humidity stress, CO2 uptake (An) increased rapidly just after beginning of darkness and as it is a CAM orchid. An was found at night period only at both temperature and humidity stress. After 5 days of transfer, An, Sc, and Tr were decreased more at 50 humidity than 70 and 90 humidity (data not shown) and after 25 days of acclimatization, An, Sc, and Tr were increased even at 50humidity. In contrast, at 15 C, An, Sc, and Tr were highly reduced after 5 days of transfer (data not shown) and could not recover even after 25 days of acclimatization. However, under temperature, An, Sc, and Tr were higher at both 25 and 300 C compared to other temperatures. An, Sc, and Tr reached a maximum at 1900 and 0500 h under all humidity stress and all air temperatures treated plantlets. The most striking result of the present study is that increase in CO2 uptake was found in daytime at 150 C, which is also associated with the increase in stomatal conductance and transpiration except the remaining temperature.

Peroxidase activity (POD)
Peroxidase activity was determined after 30 days of acclimatization under both humidity and temperature in root. POD activity was not induced or inhibited under all humidity stresses (Fig. 2A) whereas at different temperature POD activity was highly induced and at 150 C POD activity was induced about 40 compared to 250 C (Fig.2B). However, at 20, 30 and 350 C, POD activity remained same but showed higher activity than at 250 C. Surprisingly, POD activity was not detected in leaves of Doritaenopsis (Jeon et. al., 2006).

Fig. 1. Diurnal changes in net CO2 assimilation (A), stomatal conductance (B) and transpiration (C) under humidity and net CO2 assimilation (D), stomatal conductance (E) and transpiration (F) under air temperature in Doritaenopsis grown in growth chamber.  Values are mean  S.E. (n  5).

Fig. 2 The peroxidase activity under humidity (A) and air temperature (B) stressed Doritaenopsis grown in growth chamber. Different letters are significantly different between the treatments at 5 level according to DMRT. Values are mean  S.E. (n  3).
x From Jeon et al., 2006

Effect of Nutritional and Environmental Factors on Flowering
The popularity of Phalaenopsis is just due to its attractive flowersinflorescences with many colorscolor combinations, shapes, scent, and prolonged cut flower shelf life only for its flowers. Interest in cultivating Phalaenopsis is justified and critical care has to be taken to provide appropriate environmental as well as nutritional conditions for promoting flowers in large marketable numbers in short time. Marketability is important because Blanchard et al (2007) observed that only about 50 of the flowers produced really have good market value.

Only recently there has been some activity in working out the necessary parameters accurately for producing repeatable results from a growers point. Until recently it was just accepted that temperatures higher than 25 C inhibited reproductive growth and lower temperatures than 25 C promote flowering (Ichihashi, 2003). Ichihashi studied light, carbon-nitrogen balance and cool temperatures and still concluded that more studies were required.

Jeon et al (2006) studied carbon metabolism in relation to spiking. Cool night temperatures promoted accumulation of free sugars. cool night temperatures (15  20 C ) also promote flowering  and also that temperature differences in night and day were critical (Chen et al.,  2008).

Recently Newton et al., (2009) investigated six different varieties of Phalaenopsis and found that there were cultivar specific differences with respect to exposure to 12 hours and longer at higher temperatures but still for majority of the varieties, cool temperature for less than nine hours seemed necessary for flower induction and formation. Earlier Sakanishi et al (1980) had reported that a short day condition may add to low temperature effects on flower induction.

Higher nitrogen levels promoted longer flower stalk length, inflorescence length and number of flowers per stem than lower nitrogen levels (Ruamrungsri et al., 2007).

Conclusions
Orchids are extremely in species diversity with genomic flux and still evolving. Many intergeneric hybrids are still possible. Orchids have a genome which is considered the shored of all. Angiosperms (Luttge, 2004). Yet number of varieties released by breeders is very high
In such a situation, it may not be out of context to mention that a generalized mechanism of cultural conditions for best and consensus responses from Phalaenopsis cultivars may be unexpected. It is worth mentioning that the kind of CAM plasticity observed in different eighteen individual species across Cymbidium reported recently by Motomura et al. (2008) due to weak andor strong CAM habits related to their respective habitats may exist in Phalaenopsis.

It is just the beginning of investigating into physiological and ecophysiological factors needed for this crop in general and for all its new and old popular varieties. Even with the limited amount of information, it is to be noted that there are possible and observed variations in responses to the environmental factors and nutritional aspects investigated so far. A lot more of information would be necessary to even hypothesize a theoretical scheme of factors for optimum productivity in Phalaenopsis plants and inflorescences. There is some new information on molecular aspects of some functional genes   including flowering phenomena. With the new and latest tools breeding for trait related factors may become easier.

Hepatitis

Hepatitis is the injury to the liver with inflammation of the liver cells.1 It is commonly caused by a virus and the usual etiologic agents are named hepatitis A, B, C, D, E viruses.2 Drugs or alcohol use can also lead to hepatitis.3 However, most liver damage is caused by hepatitis A, B, and C viruses.1 Serious cases can lead to life-threatening complications like liver cirrhosis (scarring), liver failure and liver cancer.4  The typical symptoms of hepatitis are jaundice (the yellowish discoloration of eyes and skin), fatigue, abdominal pain, headache, low grade fever and even loss of appetite, to name a few. Each hepatitis disease has its own mode of transmission, prevention and treatment.

Hepatitis A, caused by the hepatitis A virus (HAV) is spread primarily through food or water contaminated by feces from an infected person. 2 Hepatitis A usually resolves itself over several weeks. Hepatitis B is caused by the hepatitis B virus (HBV) and is spread through contact with infected blood, sex, and from mother to child during childbirth.2 People who are infected with HBV can develop the disease either acutely or chronically. If you suffer from acute hepatitis B infection, you can be treated with drugs known as interferon, which slow the replication of the virus in the body. Those who have acute HBV infections are generally not treated with antiviral drugs since they resolve on their own.2 Hepatitis C is caused by the hepatitis C virus (HCV), and is spread primarily through contact with infected blood and less extensively through sexual contact and childbirth.2 Drugs known as interferon are the treatment of choice for HCV infections.

In order to protect our safety, it is recommended to undergo vaccination, particularly for Hepatitis A and B. Although no vaccines are available for hepatitis C, D, and E2 reducing ones exposure to these is the surest means of gaining protection from these debilitating viruses.

Staphylococcus Aureus

Staphylococcus aureus is a widely spread microorganism on the body surfaces (especially on the skin and the mucous membranes such as nose) of human beings and warm blooded animals. Scientifically, this organism is classified as follows kingdom, bacteria phylum, firm cutes class, bacilli order, bacillales family, staphylococcaceae genus, staphylococcus and species, staphylococci. The organism has the ability to produce toxins and cause food poisoning as well as making direct infections that causes diseases such as septicemia and boils in humans. Staphylococcal food poisoning results after ingesting enterotoxins together with food in case of improper storage though direct contamination (for instance in milk) may be responsible. Besides, the microorganism can infect animals and cause inflammation of the udder. This leads to mastitis disease in dairy animals. The cells of Staphylococcus aureus are round in shape and appear as grape-like clusters under microscopic observation. Its colonies have golden-yellow color.

Staphylococcus aureus is a facultative anaerobe, gram-positive, catalase positive, and coagulase positive microorganism. Besides, it has a rigid cell wall made of peptidoglycan molecules (at least 90 thick) which gives shape to the cells besides enhancing their protection. The microorganism is usually distinguished from other staphylococci species because of its ability to produce an enzymatic compound called coagulase. This attribute makes the organism to be highly virulent and forms the basis of Staphylococcus aureus classification. Although it is coagulase-positive, some strains do not produce coagulase. Hence, catalase test is done to identify Staphylococcus aureus as it is capable of producing catalase enzyme which hydrolyzes hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen. Staphylococcus aureus thrives well in the presence of oxygen to produce enterotoxins though it also survives in anaerobic environments. However, its growth is inhibited in environments with 80 CO2. The microorganism requires an optimum temperature of 370c but it can also tolerate up to 440 c in case of high NaCL concentrations. The optimum PH for supporting its growth is at least 7.3 but maximum PH may rise up to 9.3. On the other hand, growth may be inhibited by addition 0.1 acetic acid which modifies PH value to 5.1.

Staphylococcus aureus is in particular resistant to dry conditions and is capable of growing and producing enterotoxins at low water activity values for instance 0.85. This significantly enables it to tolerate adverse conditions thus making the microorganism a good competitor. In addition, it is also capable of tolerating high concentrations NaCl for instance 25 although the levels may be as low as 10. For Staphylococcus aureus to produce toxins, it requires a PH range between 5.3 and 7.0. The minimum PH for toxin production is 4.8 and can also produce toxins at PH 9. In addition, optimum temperatures for toxin production fall between 35 0c and 400c. Besides, the least temperature for toxin production is 10oc whereas the highest temperature value goes up to 450c for toxin production. Staphylococcus aureus requires optimum water activity value of 0.9 to produce toxins. The minimum water activity value for toxin production is 0.86. High toxin levels are produced in aerobic environments. This microorganism has improved heat resistance especially in dry foods with high fat and salt content. Staphylococcus aureus is also capable of surviving frozen conditions and produce highly heat resistant toxins. Extremely high and low PH conditions are known to destroy vegetative cells of Staphylococcus aureus effectively although this may depend on the type of acid. During preservation, reduced PH, water activity, modified osmotic balance, high CO2 concentration, and use of preservatives such as benzoate and sorbate salts can be used to inhibit Staphylococcus aureus (Ministry of Health, 2000).

Microbiological Tests
Thyioglycollate broth is a media used to culture and isolate both obligate and facultative anaerobic microorganisms as well as testing sterility. Thyioglycollate and cystine in the broth, acts as reducing agents necessary for creating anaerobiosis for fastidious anaerobes. The broth has high viscosity that prohibits fast oxygen uptake. Culture medium is inoculated at the bottom of the broth and incubated for several days at 35-37oc. Gram staining is a test used to differentiate between gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. The most distinct attribute tested in this process is the composition of bacterial cell wall. Gram positive microorganisms have thick and compact cell wall that forms the outermost layer containing about 90 peptidoglycan molecule. Mannitol salt agar is normally used as either selective or differential media for gram-positive cocci. This media selects salt tolerant and fermentative microorganisms especially Staphylococcus aureus. Lactose and sucrose tests are performed to determine whether they are fermented by microorganisms in the media. This is done using Durham tubes and phenol red reagent. Deviation of color from red and production of gas bubbles are the attributes of interest.

Starch utilization test is done by inoculating the culture on a starch agar and using iodine to establish whether microorganisms present are capable of hydrolyzing the starch present by observing color change. Glucose fermentation test is done by using iron agar slant. In case fermentation takes place, fissures are formed on the surface of the media. The Indole test is usually used to differentiate between gram-positive and gram-negative organisms. The gram-negative bacteria hydrolyze tryptophan in the SIM medium. The test is done by adding three to four drops of Kovacs reagent into the culture and then observing for appearance of a red ring.

Methyl Red test is used to differentiate between those organisms which are able to reduce the PH of the inoculating media by overcoming the phosphate buffer present. After inoculation for about five to six days, methyl red is added and color observation is done. Vogues-Proskauer test tests for microorganisms which are capable of fermenting and converting acidic products to acetone concurrently. During the test, Vogues-Proskauer reagent -KOH and -Napththylamine- converts acetone into di-acetyl. It then reacts with guanidine nuclei to give a red coloration/

The Gelatin hydrolysis is done to test whether microorganisms in a cultural medium are capable of producing gelatinases from gelatin nutrient broth. Gelatinases are enzymes of protein nature. After incubation at 35-37oc, test tubes containing gelatin are put on ice. The gelatin is observed either for solidification or liquefaction.

Deoxyribonuclease (DNAse) enzyme activity test is used to differentiate between Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermis microorganisms. The culture is inoculated on DNase test agar plate which contains methyl green. Production of the enzyme is then established by looking for a pink halo around the colonies. Biochemical reactions include tests such as Coagulase and Catalase. Coagulase test identifies the Staphylococcus aureus.

This microorganism produces coagulase enzyme which renders blood plasma to clot within 24 hours of incubation at 35 oc to 37 oc. As earlier mentioned, the catalase test is used to establish the production of catalase enzyme. It properly differentiates Staphylococcus aureus from among other gram positive bacteria because of the microorganisms ability to produce catalase enzyme. Hydrogen peroxide is added to the culture medium and bubbles are observed.

Results and Conclusions
Thioglycollate Broth specifically allows only the growth of anaerobic bacteria at the lower part of the media. Aerobic microorganisms are eliminated. Staphylococcus aureus colonies demonstrate good growth and are observable due to their golden color. This differentiates them from Staphylococcus epidermitis which appear as white colonies.

Gram staining identifies Staphylococcus aureus as a gram-positive microorganism. Because there a number of gram-positive cocci such as Staphylococcus epidermitis and Staphylococcus saprophyticus, they are well differentiated using other tests as later explained.

Staphylococcus aureus ferments Mannitol Salt Agar, which contains 7.5 NaCl, into acid. This is detected by measuring the PH using an indicator and change of color from red to yellow indicates positive results. This test distinguishes Staphylococcus aureus from other gram-positive cocci for instance Staphylococcus epidermidis. The fermentation of sucrose and lactose gives positive results if the phenol-red changes to yellow color. However, this may be confused with other gram-negative which also gives positive color results such as Citrobacter fruendii. Furthermore, fermentation is evidenced by the presence of a gas bubble on the Durham tube. In both fermentations, Staphylococcus aureus do not produce any gas. In the starch test, if an organism is able to hydrolyze starch in the media, a yellow halo on the culture indicates positive results for hydrolysis. Staphylococcus aureus gives negative results in this test.

In the Iron agar test, which tests for glucose and lactose fermentation, positive results are displayed by the presence of cracks on the medium. This establishes gas production due to fermentation. Microbial fermentation changes the color from red to yellow. Further, reduction of thiosulfate in the media results in formation of a black precipitate. Usually, Staphylococcus aureus is able to give positive color results without successfully breaking down thiosulfate in the medium and producing hydrogen peroxide gas.

The Indole test gives positive results upon tryptophan hydrolysis. This is evident if a red ring appears on the culture after adding a few drops of Kovacs reagent. It is usually done to differentiate gram-negative from gram positive microorganisms.

Methyl red test reveals positive results for gram negative bacteria by observing a red color after adding methyl red reagent into the medium. Negative results are noted if yellow andor orange color appears. This test eliminates Staphylococcus aureus by giving positive results for the presence of enteric microorganisms.

Positive Vogues-Proskauer test results are evidenced by observing a red coloration on the medium whereas no color change indicates negative results. Fermentative organisms produce acetone which is further converted into diacetyl and reacts with guanidine to give positive results. Mainly, this test is done to differentiate gram negative organisms.

Gelatin test gives positive results by displaying agar liquefaction. This proofs that gelatinase enzyme was produced by the bacteria during inoculation. Negative results are evidenced by gelatin solidification. Staphylococcus aureus usually gives negative results for this test. DNAse test has positive results if a pink colored halo is produced on a clear growth on the medium. This test eliminates gram-negative bacteria to differentiate Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermis. Gram-positive cocci organisms are capable of producing DNAse enzyme. The coagulase test shows positive results if the microorganism capable of coagulating or solidifying plasma sample. It separates Staphylococcus aureus from coagulase negative microorganisms such as Staphylococcus epidermitis and Staphylococcus saprophyticus.

The Catalase test gives positive results by producing gas which is evidenced by bubble production. Absence of bubble production gives negative results. This test differentiates Staphylococcus aureus from aerobic gram-positive microorganisms. It also eliminates catalase negative microorganisms for instance enterococci and streptococci. In summary, identifying and differentiating a particular microorganism cannot be done by only a single test. However, specific attributes are significantly outstanding for instance in the case of Staphylococcus aureus. Gram staining test acts as the initial step to differentiate between gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria.  Afterwards, specific tests for instance, coagulase, starch, and Catalase further differentiate between Staphylococcus aureus and other gram positive cocci such as Staphylococcus epidermitis and Staphylococcus saprophyticus which are the most common gram-positive cocci. Coagulase test specifically differentiates Staphylococcus aureus from the others as it is the only coagulase positive microorganism.

BIOMIMICRY The Case of the Plant Yacon

UTSC Student Number Due to high radiation, too much sunlight can be harmful to plants and thus compensate their ability to photosynthesize. Photosynthesis has important byproducts essential to the environment and the plant itself. Extreme sunlight may give rise to high temperature that result to faster transpiration rate of plants and destruction of the cell membrane. This further leads to impaired growth, cell destruction and plant death. Thus, it is essential to determine plant mechanisms and abilities by which they are able to cope with stress such as too much radiation from the sun (The All I Need 2005). Some plants have antioxidant properties essential for their protection from the harmful rays of sun.

Antioxidants such as Vitamins E, C and carotenoids from fruits, vegetables and whole grains give protection against damages leading to diseases such as cancer and heart disease. Such diseases are brought about by the intake of free-radicals through diet and also from direct contact from the sun. Hazardous radiation from the sun such as ultraviolet rays bring about skin damages and thus can lead to skin cancer especially to people who have low melanin contents.

A plant that is said to have an antioxidant property is Yacon (Smallanthus sonchifolius). Thus juicy tuber vegetable is found in South America and is used to lower blood sugar of diabetics and also aid in better food digestion. Also, yacon syrup was found out to lead to weight loss. Bitter-melon and cinnamon are also some plants that have antioxidant abilities.

Fructose, glucose, sucrose, oligosaccharides, and traces of starch and insulin are constituents found in yacon roots mentioned by Ray. This antioxidant plant also contains small amounts of fiber, vitamins and minerals. After the extraction process done on the tuber and leaves, it was found out that yacon has high potential as antioxidant and so, yacon extract was used to treat free-radical induced diseases such as arteriosclerosis. Yacon roots can be utilized in various ways. It can be eaten raw, stewed, grated and squeezed to serve as a drink. Yacon roots can also be sliced thinly to be fried and serve as chips. Tea made from yacon leaves serve as hypoglycemic agent.

The high fructooligosaccharide content of yacon has several functions. This constituent of this tuber plant can cause the lowering of sugar, cholesterol, triglyceride and caloric level. It also prevents the development of cavities but promote the growth of beneficial bacteria like Bifidobacterium sp. By eating the plant raw may also give some of the benefits mentioned.

Phenolic acids were isolated from the crude extract of yacon leaves through TLC (Thin Layer Chromatography) plate sprayed with 1, 1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH). Some of the extracted phenolic acids found in yacon leaves and tubers are Ferulic acid and chlorogenic acid. These acids are the constituents found out to give significant inhibition activity to radicals.

A study executed by Xiaojun et al states that Smallanthus sonchifolius has important economical and clinical value because of its beneficial effects to diabetics. This was proved through the use of 1, 1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay. Methanol was use as extracting solvent and gel permeation chromatography and preparative reverse-phase HOLC was used as purification technique. Chlorogenic acid and tryptophan were the identified antioxidants through mass spectrometry. Biomimicry provides less synthetic products and produce organic products that give innovations to aid in various problems.

Contamination of Oceans from Oil Tanker Disasters

Abstract
Oil supertanker wrecks and breaches have devastated several pristine ocean habitats during the past 40 years. The oil spills from these disasters, often spreading hundreds or thousands of square miles across the water surface, have killed millions of birds and animals and have thrown vast ecosystems into great and enduring turmoil. The Exxon-Valdez in 1989 and the Amoco Cadiz in 1978 are prime examples of such largely preventable and unnecessary catastrophes that have left enormous tragedies in their wake. Although cleanup operations are usually initiated promptly and carried out diligently, their effectiveness could only be limited. New regulatory measures that have been enacted since the Exxon-Valdez are seeking to curb the numbers of these disasters and restrain the damage they cause even if they occur.

Introduction
We live in a world that is literally run on oil. Our economy is still very much a fossil fuel economy. Decades of unrestrained use of fossil fuels has been heavily polluting our cities and would be instrumental in unleashing global cataclysms in the future, as a result of the now virtually unstoppable global warming process. The other side of this scenario of devastating pollution is the contamination of oceans caused during the extraction of oil from the ocean beds and their subsequent transfer in giant supertankers. These supertankers routinely course the oceans bearing precariously millions of tons of crude oil in their mammoth hulls. The oceans of the world generally tend to treacherous for navigation, given to very volatile weather conditions added to this, oil rigs and oil ports are often located in remote areas of the world and the waters surrounding them tend to be especially dangerous to negotiate. Accidents tend to happen, though they need not if the responsible people exercised more care and caution in planning and carrying out these massive oil transfer operations. Accidental breaches of the tankers hulls often turn into major disasters, devastating vast ocean ecosystems.

When oil-laden supertankers meet with accidents in transit, colossal amounts of oil pour into the water and wreak havoc upon the marine environment. Although people do not usually die in such disasters, they are tragedies of enormous proportions. In the 20th century, millions of seabirds have died grueling deaths owing to oil tanker accidents, and this is just a part of a vastly bigger picture  a grim and dismal picture of widespread devastation. If we take the Exxon-Valdez disaster of 1989, which is perhaps the most well-known of oil-tankers disasters (although there have been many more oil disasters which surpass Exxon-Valdez in terms of sheer volume of the oil discharge), the numbers of the animals that perished at Prince William Sound, Alaska, as a result of this mishap are staggering. An estimated 100,000 to 250,000 seabirds, 2,000 sea otters, 300 harbor seals, 250 bald eagles and so on died in the immediate aftermath of the incident. Again, the numbers of immediately dead animals and birds is just one aspect of a much extensive ecological damage lasting years and decades, one that still continues.

The Torrey Canyon off the coast of Cornwall, UK, in 1967, the Exxon Valdez, the Baer in the Shetland Islands off the northern coast of Scotland in 1992, the Amoco Haven in the Mediterranean Sea off the Italian coast near Genoa in 1991 and the earlier Amoco Cadiz off the French Coast near Brittany in 1978  these are some of the more publicized disasters. However there have occurred many more disasters such as these, though barely making it to the headlines for more than a day or two. If the Exxon Valdez spilled 35,000 tons of crude oil into the ocean, the Gulf War oil spill, reportedly the worst oil spill in the history and caused by deliberate actions of Iraqis, discharged nearly 1,500,000 of crude. The scale of these disasters is even difficult to conceive.

Lets take a closer look at the Exxon-Valdez, in order to better grasp the enormity of the disaster essentially caused by some silly negligence in navigation and for no other reason. On March 1989, the Exxon Valdez left the oil port at Valdez, Alaska, on its way to Long Beach, California. The ship struck the Bligh Reef within three hours of its departure. The vessel was carrying 54 million U.S. gallons of oil, out of which nearly 11 million gallons were spilled into the Prince William Sound, although this figure could be an underestimate. The cause of the accident has been ruled as human error.  The spill eventually (over a period of nearly two months) impacted an area of 1,300 square miles.

Clean up operations were immediately underway from the next morning itself, although not on a scale commensurate with the disaster in any way. To complicate the matters, a storm just three days after the disaster dispersed huge quantities of oil onto the rocky shores and beaches of neighboring islands. Exxon was widely criticized for its inadequate and tardy response to the situation, but extensive cleanup attempts were launched in the years following the incident, mainly during the first four years. Exxon spent 2 billion in the cleanup efforts. Thousands of volunteers and workers, over a thousand boats, over a hundred planes, a great number of Navy and Air Force resources figured into the cleanup operations (Cleveland). Regardless, a study made by NOAA in 2007 reported that more than 26,000 gallons of oil still remained seeped deep into the shoreline.

The impact of this incident on the environment was both short-term and long-term in nature. Beyond the thousands of animals and birds and billions of eggs which faced death and destruction very soon after the disaster, the suffering of the surviving marine creatures and their offspring (inhabiting the fringes of the spill or those that are otherwise indirectly affected through the food chain) continued for decades. There have been drastic reductions in marine animal populations, and stunted growth was seen in some species. Some species, such as killer whales, cormorants, and harbor seals, are considered to be not recovering at all, while other species such as sea otters and mussels are considered to be on the way to recovery. Only a very few species, such as bald eagles, are deemed to have recovered, while the status of some other species, mainly fish, is unknown.  It may take at least a decade or two yet for this expansive ocean habitat to recover to normalcy. Besides the wild life, the economies of Valdez, Cordova, Anchorage and other Alaskan towns and cities took a major blow from this accident. The industries that were directly hit were however compensated by Exxon. The litigation process over the punitive charges that had to be imposed on Exxon went on for decades, and in the end, by 2008, Exxon managed to reduce the original 5 billion plus interest charges to a mere 500 million.

Many bigger oil tanker disasters have happened both before and after the Exxon Valdez. But the Exxon Valdez is considered as one of the most catastrophic of human-caused environmental disasters of the 20th century, mainly because it occurred in one of the most pristine locations on the earth, a haven for wildlife and in fact a tourist attraction. Numerous lessons have been learnt from the disaster itself and the subsequent cleanup operations, and as a result some regulatory and operational changes have been implemented, such as the Oil Pollution Act of 1990. The Exxon Valdez incident itself and the attention it received have led to a heightening of safety concerns regarding oil supertankers and contributed to bringing down the likelihood of major oil tanker disasters in the oceans.

A very interesting fact about the Exxon Valdez is that if only the vessel had a double hull in the place of a single hull, the amount of oil that was discharged could have been cut down by 60. The cost of a double hull alone would amount to 50 of the entire single-hulled oil tanker, but notwithstanding its cost it could play a crucial role in mitigating the effects of an accident. To have a double hull for oil tankers would become mandatory from 2015 onward, and we can expect the number of oil supertanker disasters to further decline thereafter.

The Amoco Cadiz disaster on Frances Brittany coast happened over a decade before the Exxon-Valdez. It was one of the biggest ship-wrecks in history. The oil spilled from it, nearly 225,000 tons of crude oil (equivalent to 68 million gallons), affected 240 miles of French coast. The casualty figures 20,000 birds, 9,000 tons of oysters, millions of dead mollusks and sea urchins. This disaster for the first time presented TV audiences the sad plight of oil-coated birds and other marine creatures.

From the 1967 Torrey Canyon to 2007 Herbei Spirit which discharged 2.8 million gallons of crude oil very close to South Koreas west coast, oil tanker disasters have been ravaging the worlds oceans. There have been over 20 major disasters the world over in the span of 40 years. The ecological devastation they have been causing is enormous. The damage they inflict should be measured not only terms of figures and statistics, but also in terms of actual suffering they cause to innocent birds, animals and fishes. Most of the birds and animals exposed to oil spills do not die instantly but die prolonged deaths, experiencing great torment. As the oil penetrates the plumage of the birds, it leads to several consequences. The birds insulating ability is reduced making it vulnerable to hypothermia, the bird becomes less buoyant in the water, and significantly less capable of air flight. These two factors make it very difficult for the bird to find food and defend itself against predators.  Also, in the attempt to preen and clean themselves, the birds ingest oil toxic and carcinogenic compounds in the oil damage the birds internal organs and kill them slowly, subjecting them to various disabilities and illnesses. There is very little chance for the survival of the birds caught up in an oil spill. Marine mammals such as sea otters and seals suffer a similar fate as that of birds. Their lives become insupportable in the black world oozing thick oil from everywhere. Most of these birds and animals would die without the aid of human intervention, but even when these creatures are de-oiled with great effort and released into safer environments, usually very of them survive.

Fishes are also the victims. Heavier-than-water oil products as well as the heavier fraction of crude oils sink to the bottom of the ocean where they coat the fish populations. Vast stretches of phytoplankton and zooplankton would also be killed or rendered toxic. Whole ecological systems, with their complex web of food chains, would be severely taxed and disturbed.

Since oil floats on the surface, large discharges may cause long-term damage to the surface environment by destroying elements of the ocean food chain, especially plankton, fish, and birds. Living organisms coated with oil seldom survive. Oil is a continuing threat to a range of highly sensitive ocean environments, including coral reefs, coastal wetlands, and fish spawning areas.

Over the years, as the technology improved, the effectiveness of cleanup operations too has increased. Usually, an oil spill is treated in multiple ways. Dispersant particles gather clusters of oil globules around themselves and carry them away. These can be later scavenged more easily. Sorbents are used to absorb the oil. In the method called bioremediation, oil-eating bacteria and other microorganisms or biological agents are used to break down the oil. Besides these, a wide variety of manual and mechanical processes employing tools such as shovels, booms, and dredging equipment are put in place. Sometimes more sophisticated equipments such as high-speed oil containment systems are used. But no matter how intensive and extensive the cleanup efforts are and whatever technologies may be used, it is very difficult to reach a satisfactory degree of cleaning up in the context of such huge disasters the cleanup can only be considered as a damage control operation.

Oil tanker disasters in the ocean have caused and in the future are still likely to cause massive damage to ocean environments. However, they constitute only a part, and in fact the lesser part, of total oil contamination of the oceans. The majority of the oil pollution of the ocean waters happens deliberately, as when oil tankers are flushed with sea water. Done on a collective scale, such routine flushing of oil tankers discharges millions of gallons of oil into the ocean every year, but all of it goes unnoticed.  Crude oil and refined products spill also happens regularly from routine operations of offshore oil rigs, as well as leakage from undersea pipes.  These oil spills have enormous impact on the neighboring marine life. The Ocean continues to suffer.

Conclusion
The world has first encountered the heart-breaking images of teeming birds and animals submerged in a sea of oil over 30 years ago. That was also the time when the environmental movement had just begun to take off. Since then the sad sight of ocean devastation caused by oil tanker accidents has become almost commonplace. These images and the enormous figures of destruction associated with them naturally evoke horrified reactions from the common people. These disasters should not happen. Man has no right to inflict pain and death on such a huge scale on beautiful and innocent birds and animals. These disasters need not have happened too if not for the lack of resolve on the part of the people and authorities concerned. It can only be hoped that the past four decades of oil tanker disasters will remain an episode of dark legacy of the twentieth centurys hunger for oil, and in the decades to come we will go beyond our dependence on oil and the massive disasters associated with it.

Financial Costs of Fossil Fuels on Agriculture from a Global and U, Ks Perspective

Agriculture is one of the industries that have been greatly impacted by the trends in the prices and usage of fossil fuels. This is because in most countries agriculture encompasses high specialization, extensive farms which are heavily reliant on large inputs of pesticides oil based synthetic fertilizers, fossil fuels and chemicals. In the U.S. for instance, a fifth of the 10,551 quadrillion joules of fossil fuel energy used in total food production goes to agriculture (Soil Conservation Council of Canada, 2001 p. 17). In U.K., agriculture which is overly dependent on fossil fuel based energy and other inputs derived from fossil fuels contributes about 2 of the GDP and about 60 of the food consumed. However, recent trends with respect to fossil fuel energy such as the increase in prices oil past few decades have had a adverse effects on agricultural production in terms of cots and economic competitiveness in general. As a result, this has led to heavy losses on jobs and profits and an economic damage on the economies of many countries particularly those based on an agricultural economy. Increases in fossil fuel prices makes the situation worse given that agricultural production in most countries is heavily industrialized and dependent on fossil fuel based inputs. In the U.K, the agricultural sector is heavily mechanized and highly dependent on industrial chemical inputs.

Most of the negative financial implications of fossil fuels on agriculture are enhanced by a narrow and short-term focus on productivity and profits rather than sustainability. Costs implicated by intensive fossil fuels dependent agriculture are in most cases indirect. Modern industrial agricultural practices encompass the use of fossil fuels in running of the various machineries such as combine harvesters, production and transportation of fertilizers and pesticides and in the preservation and transport of food across the world. Extensive use of fossil fuels for these activities in the face of the increasing agricultural production across the world has led to enormous emissions of green house gases such as nitrous oxides, and carbon dioxide which are the major causes of global warming and ozone pollution. The implications of this environmental depletion in turn lead to high financial costs in agriculture due to changes in seasons, droughts, floods and destruction of the ecosystems. Agricultural production has since time immemorial been dependent on seasons and the natural ecology thus changes in these seasons and the natural ecosystem due to burning of fossil fuels in industrial agricultural production impacts negatively on agricultural productivity. This exacts high costs and losses on agriculture as extra inputs are required. Moreover, these irregular seasons demand that new strategies be implemented in agriculture as the current one ceases to be effective and hence high financial cost are becoming prevalent in agriculture.

Most of the fertilizers and chemical inputs that industrial agriculture depends on are produced in factories whereby fossil fuel based energy sources such as coal, oil and gasses are used. Forty percent of fossil energy used in agriculture goes to production of artificial pesticides and fertilizers. The Environmental Protection Agency indicates that as of 1992, U.S alone used about 1.1 billion pounds of active ingredients in terms of pesticides. Still in U.S fertilizer usage was about 23.7 million tons in 1981 though the figure reduced to 20.7 million tons in the year 1992. Grain production has tripled in the latter half of the past century-in year 2004 it reached 2,029 million tons up from 631 in 1950. Burning of these fossil fuels is known to produce carbon dioxide whose concentration in the atmosphere has been increasing over time. In year 1994, for instance, burning of fossil fuels in U.K is estimated have emitted about 36.6 of the total green house gasses emissions. Further, its noted that in the last ten years, the per annum growth rate of CO2 in the atmosphere has risen to 1.9ppm from 1.4ppm in the 1960s.  As a result, global warming has become prevalent in the world. The impacts of global warming have been felt in the agricultural sector more than in any other filed due to the need for costly inputs necessary to address the effects caused by global warming such irrigation systems due to problems such as droughts. For instance, crop diseases such as blight have been on the rise due to changing climatic conditions (19 USDOE, 2001p.11). Impacts such as the expansion of arid lands because of climate changes necessitate expensive investments in products such as fertilizers that improve these lands. Generally, fossil fuels have been continuously increasing the financial costs in agricultural production due the ever increasing fossil fuel based inputs into agricultural productivity yet the negative impacts of the same fossil fuels continue to reduce productivity making it impossible to cover the high financial cost of production (Union of Concerned Scientists, 2010 p. 11).

In modern agriculture, one of the greatest fears is about acid rain. This issue is even critical given the fact that increased industrial agriculture practices aimed at meeting the ever increasing need for food production. Fossil fuels also emit nitrogen oxide and sulfur oxide which are major elements causing acid rains (RSAS 1975 p. 13). Smog is also formed by the reaction of hydrocarbons from the activity of burning fossil fuels either in agricultural products transportation or in production machinery. Both smog and acid rain have detrimental effects on the agricultural productivity as they cause various complexities in crops such as diseases and retarded growth. This impacts high cost in agricultural production as productivity is low than the profits reaped form the sector. Acid rain also causes an imbalance in the natural conditions of the soil which is paramount for agricultural productivity. Apart from requiring inputs such as soil re-conditioners which are expensive, these soils contribute to changes in the natural ecosystems which become a financial burden in agriculture.

Studies conducted by the U.S Department of Energy indicate that the usage of fossil is expected to increase in this century yet the resource itself is an un-renewable one and it is running out so rapidly (Soil Conservation Council of Canada, 200137). With the agricultural sector being overly dependent on fossil fuels, it becomes very difficult and expensive to develop alternative systems that depend on other types of energy sources and which are renewable such as bio-fuels. Over dependence on fossil fuels in agricultural production has been very costly. Since a large percentage of modern agricultural production is based on oil, the issue of sustainability has impacted heavy costs on the agriculture over time. Fossil fuels are being used at a rate million times more than how they are formed. Decrease in these reserves has caused panic since oil prices have increased. Both population and the need for food production continue to increase while oil production is bound to drop.  This scenario is hence impacting high cost in modern industrial agricultural production in terms of chemical inputs such as expensive fertilizers, and other services that sustain the agricultural production as very minimal efficient alternatives exist.

Areas Where Fossil Fuels Are Used Most
There are various fields in which fossil fuel energy is applied in agriculture. The urge to produce surplus food to feed populations for a long period has relatively resulted into increased use of oil based machinery and equipments in preservation practices such as drying, smoking, storage and other methods. For instance, to dry one liter of moister from grains, an average of about 3,600 kcal of energy is required while making a 455g steel can demands about 1,006 kcal of energy. Currently agricultural produce is transported farther than ever. In the industrial nations of the west, agricultural food is transported for a distance of up to 2,500 to 4000 kilometers to the store from farms. Trucking and refrigerated transportation are by far more energy intensive. The amounts of agricultural produce transported rose by 16 while the covered distance increased by about 50 between 1999 and 1978.Farm machinery such as combine harvesters also consume large amounts of energy derived from fossil fuels since biofuels are bit expensive to produce. According to Leach (1976, p. 104), 21 of energy which is basically fossil fuel based is used in agricultural production while 14 goes to transportation. Statistics indicate that by 2004, U.K. was consuming about 74.13 of fossil fuel much of which was being used in industrial production of production of potatoes, cereals, oilseed, cereals, tobacco and production of farm inputs. Statics provided by Michigan universitys sustainable agriculture centre indicate that fossil fuel amounting to 7 calories is used to produce each calories in finished foods.            

Treatment and Care of Parkinsons Disease

Parkinsons disease is a disorder of the motor system that can significantly affect and decrease a persons quality of life.  Its symptoms are the trembling of hands, arms, legs or jaw rigidity of the limbs sudden slowness of movement and impaired balance and coordination while moving (Stewart A. Factor  William J. Weiner, 2008, p.47).

The primary cause for Parkinsons disease is the death or impairment of the neurons in the area of the brain known as the substantia nigra.  The neurons in this part of the brain produce a chemical known as dopamine which is responsible for transmitting signals from one part of the brain to the other.

Diagnosing Parkinsons disease is very difficult as there is no blood or laboratory tests that can help detect Parkinsons disease.  Moreover, despite the advances in medical technology, there is no known effective cure for Parkinsons disease.  None of the medications available can halt or retard the death of dopaminergic neuron.  The most that the current medications on Parkinsons disease can do is to treat its symptoms.

Some of the early-stage treatment for Parkinsons involve that treatment with monoamine oxidase-B (MAO-B) inhibitors, amantadine (Symmetrel) or anticholinergics help improve the mild symptoms.  However, these treatments do not slow down cell degeneration and they target only the symptoms.  Moreover, there is a high incidence of adverse affects in the gastro intestine which makes them harmful for use of older patients.

Levodopa is also used as treatment and considered as the most effective pharmacologic agent for Parkinsons disease and remains the primary treatment for symptomatic patients (Shobra Rao, Laura Hofmann and Amer Shakil, 2006, p. 1246).  However, the levodopa does not protect the cells against degeneration or slow it down.  Moreover, it was also found out that after five years of treatment with levodopa 40 of the patients develop motor fluctuations caused by the wearing-off of the effect of levodopa which results in the re-appearance of the symptoms (R. Talati, W. L. Baker, A. A. Patel, K. Reinhart,  C. I. Coleman, 2009, p.616).

The defect in the currently available treatment of Parkinsons disease is that they do not protect the cells or slow down its degeneration.  The treatments only target the diseases symptoms and they only offer end-of-the-pipe approach to Parkinsons disease which is not clinically effective. In contrast, scientists have long believed that the human body can protect itself against cell regeneration just like some of the animals.  For instance, Dr. Jeff S. Mumm, a biologist at the Medical College of Georgia, believes that humans may also have this ability.  He said that With the same general set of genetic tools, these animals can do something we cant regenerate lost cells and tissues. Our job is to figure out which tools in which combination or sequence afford fish this capacity, then apply this knowledge toward the creation of regenerative therapies for humans (Toni Baker, 2008, p.1).

The most recent research on the treatment of Parkinsons disease has been conducted by Ohta, Kuno, Inoue, Ikeda, Fujinami and Ohta (2010).  The research seeks to aid the current studies which are looking for ways on how to effectively treat people with Parkinsons disease.  They seek to find the right treatment by focusing on the substances that can protect the neurons and help in their survival and proper functioning.

According to their research, some dopamine agonists which were applied in cultured cells and animal models have an effect in protecting neurons against cell degeneration (Ohta et al, 2010, p.1).  The research also found that neurotrophic factors, such as the nerve growth factor (NGF) and the glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), play an important role in the nervous system since they help in slowing down or even preventing the death of the damaged neurons (Ohta et al, 2010, p.1).  They also play a critical role in the maintenance of neuronal function throughout the lifetime of the individual such as regulation of the growth of neurons, cell proliferation and survival.  For instance, GDNF affects motor neurons and selectively protects the nigrostrital dopaminergic pathway.  The protective effect of GDNF on motor neurons is several times greater than those of other known neurotrophic factors.  In rats and monkeys, for instance, GDNF protects dopaminergic neurons of the ventral mesencephalon from cell death.  Moreover, in an experiment involving monkeys, the administration of GDNF for four weeks helped improve dyskinesia, rigidity, and postural instability.  Because of the beneficial effects of the neurotrophic factors in protecting neurons its role in the treatment of Parkinsons disease is being studied further.  

Based on their latest research, dopamine agonists can be used to effectively stimulate neurotrophic factors in the brain (Ohta et al, 2010, p.2).  It must be stressed that the stimulation of the dopamine agonist is essential in the GDNF synthesis and secretion.  The research used the brains of 8-day-old ICR which were excised and cut into pieces for culturing.  The cultured astrocytes were then exposed to four kinds of medicines SKF-38393, apomorphine, bromocriptine, and ropinirole, which is a non-ergoline dopamine agonist, at various concentrations for 24 hour.   The secretion of neurotrophic factors in the cultured astrocytes was then measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).

After the secreted amounts of various neurotrophic factors were measured, it was found that the different medicines resulted in different levels of secretion of neurotrophic factors. Some resulted in maximum secretions while some resulted in minimal secretions.  After measuring the secreted amounts of neurotrophic factors for each of the four medicines, it was found that ropinirole induced the most secretion of neurotrophic factors.

This research establishes that Parkinsons disease is treatable.  With the use of ropinirole, Parkinsons disease may be treated by protecting the neurons against cell degeneration.  At the same time, it can also avoid the side effects commonly associated with the use of the current medications such as nausea and vomiting, drowsiness and sleepiness, dizziness or fainting, hallucinations and confusion.  In addition, ropinirole helps in the releasing neurotrophic factors which can improve the patients quality of life which is a not present in the medicines available today.

TWO MICROORGANISMS

There are several microorganisms in the environments which have established their secure places their respective ecological niches as determined by evolutionary strategic fitnesses in the environment. They coexist among themselves as well with all other macroorganisms. Each organism whatever the size also demonstrates a genetically bestowed innate capacity to out-survive others in many relationships such as being obligate or facultative parasites (on any other organism of any group), commensals, symbionts and so on.

Among the many microorganisms, two fungal organisms of one each of beneficial and pathogenic groups are discussed for their similarities and differences. Beneficial organisms are the species of the genus Trichoderma viride. The harmful pathogenic organisms are several species belonging to Aspergillus such as A. flavus.

Similarities
Fungi of both the groups are micropscopic and grow to a cottony off white irregular mass (some inches longwode) consisting of many microscopically visible numerous intertwined filamentous structures called (2-10 microns in diameter) hyphaemycelia.  These are septate (compartmented) with clear partitions between segments, or coenocytic (multinucleate, mostly with no compartments), and also hollowempty showing freely randomly distributed nuclei in the cytoplasm generally at the growing apices of these hyphae. They all contain all the usual subcellular organelles necessary for the other metabolic phenomena such as synthesis of proteins, cell wall material, and respiration. Generally they are aerobic.

They are all heterotrophic because they lack chlorophyll may live in dry or moist soil, decaying organic matter or on other organisms such as barks, stems, roots, leaves or of trees.  The fungi are widely distributed in all the kinds of environments. They produce numerous spores asexually or sexually fertilized zygote which are dispersed in air, or by sticking to surfaces of motile other organisms.

They are generally recognized by staining with dyes for coloring the hyphae which are a product of general or specific for each organism specific metabolism

Differences
Species of Trichoderma produce enzymes called chitinases or cellulases which Therefore they are very useful as antagonistic microorganisms or even to produces these enzymes under controlled in vitro conditions.

The pathogenic species of aspergillus  Aspergillus such as A. flavus survives by colonizing on many nutritionally important fruits and seeds such peanuts and many other species during maturity and post harvest storage.. It sucks nutrients and carbohydrates from the seedsfruits thus depriving the seeds and fruits developing into mature useful seeds. They are thus big loss to farmers.

Aspergillus flavus is notorious for promoting the production of a deadly carcinogenic toxin in the seeds called the aflatoxins. Even at low concentrations such parts per billion can be very potentially carcinogenic. Peanuts are used for consumptions in various ways and also as oils and butter for confectionary purposes. The persons consuming any of these infected products are high dangers of developing many kinds of cancers which are still not curable. There is a strict ban on importing and exporting seeds of these crops.

Treatment and Care of Parkinsons Disease

Parkinsons disease is a disorder of the motor system that can significantly affect and decrease a persons quality of life.  Its symptoms are the trembling of hands, arms, legs or jaw rigidity of the limbs sudden slowness of movement and impaired balance and coordination while moving (Stewart A. Factor  William J. Weiner, 2008, p.47).

The primary cause for Parkinsons disease is the death or impairment of the neurons in the area of the brain known as the substantia nigra.  The neurons in this part of the brain produce a chemical known as dopamine which is responsible for transmitting signals from one part of the brain to the other.

Diagnosing Parkinsons disease is very difficult as there is no blood or laboratory tests that can help detect Parkinsons disease.  Moreover, despite the advances in medical technology, there is no known effective cure for Parkinsons disease.  None of the medications available can halt or retard the death of dopaminergic neuron.  The most that the current medications on Parkinsons disease can do is to treat its symptoms.

Some of the early-stage treatment for Parkinsons involve that treatment with monoamine oxidase-B (MAO-B) inhibitors, amantadine (Symmetrel) or anticholinergics help improve the mild symptoms.  However, these treatments do not slow down cell degeneration and they target only the symptoms.  Moreover, there is a high incidence of adverse affects in the gastro intestine which makes them harmful for use of older patients.

Levodopa is also used as treatment and considered as the most effective pharmacologic agent for Parkinsons disease and remains the primary treatment for symptomatic patients (Shobra Rao, Laura Hofmann and Amer Shakil, 2006, p. 1246).  However, the levodopa does not protect the cells against degeneration or slow it down.  Moreover, it was also found out that after five years of treatment with levodopa 40 of the patients develop motor fluctuations caused by the wearing-off of the effect of levodopa which results in the re-appearance of the symptoms (R. Talati, W. L. Baker, A. A. Patel, K. Reinhart,  C. I. Coleman, 2009, p.616).

The defect in the currently available treatment of Parkinsons disease is that they do not protect the cells or slow down its degeneration.  The treatments only target the diseases symptoms and they only offer end-of-the-pipe approach to Parkinsons disease which is not clinically effective. In contrast, scientists have long believed that the human body can protect itself against cell regeneration just like some of the animals.  For instance, Dr. Jeff S. Mumm, a biologist at the Medical College of Georgia, believes that humans may also have this ability.  He said that With the same general set of genetic tools, these animals can do something we cant regenerate lost cells and tissues. Our job is to figure out which tools in which combination or sequence afford fish this capacity, then apply this knowledge toward the creation of regenerative therapies for humans (Toni Baker, 2008, p.1).

The most recent research on the treatment of Parkinsons disease has been conducted by Ohta, Kuno, Inoue, Ikeda, Fujinami and Ohta (2010).  The research seeks to aid the current studies which are looking for ways on how to effectively treat people with Parkinsons disease.  They seek to find the right treatment by focusing on the substances that can protect the neurons and help in their survival and proper functioning.

According to their research, some dopamine agonists which were applied in cultured cells and animal models have an effect in protecting neurons against cell degeneration (Ohta et al, 2010, p.1).  The research also found that neurotrophic factors, such as the nerve growth factor (NGF) and the glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), play an important role in the nervous system since they help in slowing down or even preventing the death of the damaged neurons (Ohta et al, 2010, p.1).  They also play a critical role in the maintenance of neuronal function throughout the lifetime of the individual such as regulation of the growth of neurons, cell proliferation and survival.  For instance, GDNF affects motor neurons and selectively protects the nigrostrital dopaminergic pathway.  The protective effect of GDNF on motor neurons is several times greater than those of other known neurotrophic factors.  In rats and monkeys, for instance, GDNF protects dopaminergic neurons of the ventral mesencephalon from cell death.  Moreover, in an experiment involving monkeys, the administration of GDNF for four weeks helped improve dyskinesia, rigidity, and postural instability.  Because of the beneficial effects of the neurotrophic factors in protecting neurons its role in the treatment of Parkinsons disease is being studied further.  

Based on their latest research, dopamine agonists can be used to effectively stimulate neurotrophic factors in the brain (Ohta et al, 2010, p.2).  It must be stressed that the stimulation of the dopamine agonist is essential in the GDNF synthesis and secretion.  The research used the brains of 8-day-old ICR which were excised and cut into pieces for culturing.  The cultured astrocytes were then exposed to four kinds of medicines SKF-38393, apomorphine, bromocriptine, and ropinirole, which is a non-ergoline dopamine agonist, at various concentrations for 24 hour.   The secretion of neurotrophic factors in the cultured astrocytes was then measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).

After the secreted amounts of various neurotrophic factors were measured, it was found that the different medicines resulted in different levels of secretion of neurotrophic factors. Some resulted in maximum secretions while some resulted in minimal secretions.  After measuring the secreted amounts of neurotrophic factors for each of the four medicines, it was found that ropinirole induced the most secretion of neurotrophic factors.

This research establishes that Parkinsons disease is treatable.  With the use of ropinirole, Parkinsons disease may be treated by protecting the neurons against cell degeneration.  At the same time, it can also avoid the side effects commonly associated with the use of the current medications such as nausea and vomiting, drowsiness and sleepiness, dizziness or fainting, hallucinations and confusion.  In addition, ropinirole helps in the releasing neurotrophic factors which can improve the patients quality of life which is a not present in the medicines available today.